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The Lake History Stories 



The Lake History Stories 



THE HARDING BOOKS 

GREEK GODS, HEROES, AND MEN, by Samuel 
B. Harding and Caroline H. Harding. 202 pages, 
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THE STORY OF THE MAP OF EUROPE, by L. P. 

Benezet. 282 pages, 56 illustrations, 22 maps (6 in colors). 
Price 60 



SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY 

Chicago New York 



THE STORY OF THE 

MAP OF EUROPE 

ITS MAKING AND ITS CHANGING 



BY 

L!^^P. BENEZET 

SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LA CROSSE, WISCONSIN 



SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY 

CHICAGO NEW YORK 



v^^ 



COPYRIGHT, 1916 
By SCOTT. FORESMAN AND COMPANY 




FEB 28 1916 

©aA427041 



PREFACE 

This little volume is the result of the interest 
shown by pupils, teachers, and the general pubhc in 
a series of talks on the causes of the great European 
war which were given by the author in the fall 
of 1914. The audiences were widely different in 
character. They included pupils of the sixth, 
seventh, and eighth grades, students in high school 
and normal school, teachers in the public schools, 
an association of business men, and a convention of 
boards of education. In every case, the same 
sentiment was voiced: ''If there were only some 
book which would give us these facts in simple 
language and illustrate them by maps and charts as 
you have done!" After searching the market for a 
book of this sort without success, the author deter- 
mined to put the subject of his talks into manuscript 
form. It has been his aim to write in a style which 
is. well within the comprehension of the children in 
the upper grades and yet is not too juvenile for adult 
readers. The book deals with the remarkable 
sequence of events in Europe which made the great 
war inevitable. Facts are revealed which, so far as 
the author knows, have not been pubhshed in any 
history to date; facts which had the strongest 
possible bearing on the outbreak of the war. 

The average American, whether child or adult, 
has little conception of conditions in Europe. In 
America all races mix. The children of the Polish 
Jew mingle with those of the Sicilian, and in the 
second generations both peoples have become 



2 Preface 

Americans. Bohemians intermarry with Irish, 
Scotch with Norwegians. In Europe, on the other 
hand, Czech and Teuton, Bulgar and Serb may Uve 
side by side for centuries without mixing or losing 
their distinct racial characteristics. In order that 
the American reader may understand the compli- 
cated problem of European peace, a study of races 
and languages is given in the text, showing the rela- 
tionship of Slav, Celt, Latin, and Teuton, and the 
various sub-divisions of these peoples. A knowledge 
of these facts is very essential to any understanding 
of the situation in Europe. The author has pointed 
out the fact that political boundaries are largely 
king-made, and that they have seldom been drawn 
with regard to the natural cUvision of Europe by 
nationalities, or to the wishes of the mass of the 
population. 

The chapter, entitled ''Europe as it Should Be," 
with its accompanying map, shows the boundaries 
of the various nations as they would look if the bulk 
of the people of each nationality were included in a 
single political division. In many places, it is, of 
course, impossible to draw sharp lines. Greek 
shades off into Bulgar on one side and into Skipetar 
and Serb on the other. Prague, the capital of the 
Czechs, is one-third German in its population. 
There are large islands of Germans and Magyars 
in the midst of the Roumanians of Transylvania. 
These are a few examples out of many which could 
be cited. How^ever, the general aim of the chapter 
has been to divide the continent into nations, in each 
of which the leading race would vastly predominate 
in population. 

It is hoped that the study of this little work will 



Preface 3 

not onl}^ throw light upon the causes of war in gen- 
eral, but will also reveal its cruelty and its needless- 
ness. It is shown that the history of Europe from 
the time of the great invasions by the Germanic 
tribes has been a continuous story of government 
without the consent of the governed. 

A preventive for wars, such as statesmen and phil- 
anthropists in many countries have urged, is out- 
lined in the closing chapter. It would seem as 
though after this terrible demonstration of the results 
of armed peace, the governments of the world would 
be ready to listen to some plan which would forever 
forbid the possibility of another war. Just as 
individuals in the majority of civilized countries 
discovered, a hundred years ago, that it was no 
longer necessary for them to carry weapons in order 
to insure their right to live and to enjoy protection, 
so nations may learn at last that peace and security 
are preferable -to the fruits of brigandage and aggres- 
sion. The colonies of America, after years of 
jealousy and small differences, followed by a tre- 
mendous war, at last learned this lesson. In the 
same way the states of Europe will have to learn it. 
The stumbling blocks in the Avay are the remains of 
feudal government in Europe and the ignorance 
and short-sightedness of the common people in many 
countries. Ignorance is rapidly waning with the 
advance of education, and we trust that feudalism 
will not long survive its last terrible crime, the world 
war of 1914. 

.In the preparation of this little work, the author 
has received many helpful suggestions from co- 
workers. His thanks are especially due to Professor 
A. G. Terry of Northwestern University and Pro- 



4 Preface 

fessor A. H. Sanford of the Wisconsin State Normal 
School at La Crosse, who were kind enough to read 
through and correct the manuscript before its final 
revision. Acknowledgment is also made to Row, 
Peterson and Company for kind permission to use 
illustrations from History Stories of Other Lands; 
also to the International Film Service, Inc., of New 
York City for the use of many valuable copyright 
illustrations of scenes relating to the great war. 

L. P. BENEZET. 

La Crosse, Wisconsin, 
January 20, 1916. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

Preface .1 

List of Maps 6 

List of Illustrations 7 

I. The Great War 9 

II. Rome and the Barbarian Tribes 22 

III. From Chiefs to Kings 37 

IV. Master and Man 52 

V. A Babel of Tongues 61 

VI. "The Terrible Turk" 78 

VII. The Rise of Modern Nations 87 

VIII. The Fall of Two Kingdoms 101 

IX. The Little Man from the Common People .112 

X. A King-Made Map and Its Trail of Wrongs . 127 

XI. Italy a Nation at Last 136 

XII. The Man of Blood and Iron 144 

XIII. The Balance of Power 162 

XIV. The "Entente Cordiale" 178 

XV. The Sowing of the Dragon's Teeth 191 

XVI. Who Profits? 203 

XVII. The Spark that Exploded the Magazine ... 212 

XVIII. Why England Came In 222 

XIX. Diplomacy and Kingly Ambition 231 

XX. Europe As It Should Be 243 

XXI. The Cost of It All 251 

XXII. The Causes of War and a Remedy 260 

Pronouncing Glossary 269 

Index 273 



LIST OF MAPS 

PAGE 

Distribution of Peoples According to Relationship . . 65 

Distribution of Languages 66 

Southeastern Europe in 600 b.c 72 

Southeastern Europe 975 a.d 74 

Southeastern Europe 1690 82 

The Empire of Charlemagne 90 

Europe in 1540 (following) 91 

The Growth of Brandenburg-Prussia 1400-1806 99 

Italy in 525 114 

Italy in 650 115 

Italy in 1175 116 

Europe in 1796 (following) 118 

Europe in 1810 (following) 120 

Europe in 1815 (following) 129 

Italy Made One Nation — 1914 — .... (following) 141 

Formation of the German Empire 158 

Southeastern and Central Europe 1796 168 

Losses of Turkey During the Nineteenth Century . . .169 

Turkey As the Balkan Allies Planned to Divide It . . . 192 

Changes Resulting from Balkan Wars 1912-1913 . . . 198 

The Two Routes from Germany into France 220 

Europe as It Should Be (following) 245 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

The Peace Palace at the Hague Frontispiece 

Fleeing from Their Homes, Around which a Battle is 

Raging 12 

A Drill Ground in Modern Europe 20 

The Forum of Rome as It Was 1600 Years Ago .... 26 

The Last Combat of the Gladiators 28 

Germans Going into Battle 31 

A Hun Warrior . 32 

Gaius Julius Caesar 34 

A Prankish Chief 38 

Movable Huts of Early Germans 39 

Goths on the March 40 

Franks Crossing the Rhine 41 

Men of Normandy Landing in England 42 

Alexander Defeating the Persians 44 

A Knight in Armor 46 

A Norman Castle in England 53 

A Vassal Doing Homage to His Lord 56 

WiUiam the Conqueror 58 

A Typical Bulgarian Family 76 

Mohammed H Before Constantinople 79 

A Scene in Salonika 85 

Louis XIV 92 

John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough 93 

The Great Elector of Brandenburg 94 

Frederick the Great 96 

Catharine II 103 

Courtier of Time of Louis XIV 105 

The Taking of the Bastille 106 

7 



8 List of Illustrations 

The Palace of Versailles 107 

The Reign of Terror 109 

The First Singing of "The Marseillaise" 110 

Charles the Fifth 117 

The Emperor Napoleon in 1814 122 

The Retreat from Moscow 124 

Napoleon at Waterloo 126 

The Congress of Vienna 128 

Prince Metternich 134 

The First Meeting of Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel . 140 

Bismarck 145 

An Attack on a Convoy in the Franco-Prussian War . 154 
The Proclamation at Versailles of William I as Emperor 

of Germany 156 

Peter the Great 164 

Entrance to the Mosque at St. Sophia 166 

The Congress of BerUn 170 

An Arab Sheik and His Staff 179 

A Scene in Constantinople 184 

Durazzo 196 

A Modern Dreadnaught 202 

Submarine 204 

A Fort Ruined by the Big German Guns 218 

Russian Peasants Fleeing Before the German Army . . 234 

A Bomb-proof Trench in the Western War Front ... 238 

Polish Children 247 

The Price of War 250 

Rendered Homeless by War 253 

Charles XII of Sweden 256 



THE STORY OF THE 
MAP OF EUROPE 

Chapter I 
THE GREAT WAR 

The call from Europe. — Friend against friend. — Why? — 
Death and devastation. — No private quarrel. — Ordered by 
government. — What makes government? — The influence of 
the past. — Four causes of war. 

Among the bricklayers at work on a building 
which was being erected in a great American Austrian 

. and 

City durmg the summer of 1914 were two men Russian 

who had not yet become citizens of the United 

States. Born abroad, they still owed allegiance, 

one to the Emperor of Austria, the other to 

the Czar of Russia. 

Meeting in a new country, and using a new 
language which gave them a chance to under- 
stand each other, they had become well 
acquainted. They were members of the same 
labor union, and had worked side by side on ^, 
several different jobs. In the course of time, a chums 
firm friendship had sprung up between them. 

Suddenly, on the same day, each was notified 
to call at the office of the agent of his govern- 

9 



The call 

from 

Europe 



A sad 
parting 



The great 
war 



10 The Story of 

merit in the city. Next morning the Russian 
came to his boss to explain that he must quit 
work, that he had been called home to fight for 
the ''Little Father" of the Russians. He found 
his chum, the Austrian, there ahead of him, tell- 
ing that he had to go, for the Russians had 
declared war on Austria and the good Kaiser,* 
Franz Josef, had need of all his young men. 

The two chums stared at each other in sorrow 
and dismay. The pitiless arm of the god of 
war had reached across the broad Atlantic, 
plucking them back from peace and security. 
With weapons put into their hands they would 
be ordered to kill each other on sight. 

A last hand-clasp, a sorrowful ''Good luck to 
you," and they parted. 

Why was this necessary? What was this 
irresistible force, strong enough to separate the 
two friends and drag them back five thousand 
miles for the purpose of killing each other? 

To answer these two questions is the purpose 
of this little volume. 

Beginning with the summer of 1914, Europe 
and parts of Asia and Africa were torn and 
racked with the most tremendous war that the 
world has ever seen. Millions of men were 
killed. Other milhons were maimed, blinded, or 
disfigured for life. Still other milhons were 



In the German language, the title Kaiser means Emperor. 



The Map of Europe 11 

herded into prison camps or forced to work 

like convict laborers. Millions of homes were ^ . ^ _, 

Grief and 

filled with grief. Milhons of women were hardships 
forced to do hard work which before the war 
had been considered beyond their power. 
Millions of children were left fatherless. What 
had been the richest and most productive farm- 
ing land in Europe was made a barren waste. 
Thousands of villages and towns were utterly 
destroyed and their inhabitants were forced to 
flee, the aged, the sick, and the infants alike. 
In many cases, as victorious armies swept 
through Poland and Serbia, the wretched 
inhabitants fled before them, literally starving, 

because all food had been seized for the use of ^ .^, 

Terrible 

fighting men. Dreadful diseases, which cannot suffering 
exist where people have the chance to bathe and 
keep themselves clean, once more appeared, 
sweeping away hundreds of thousands of vic- 
tims. The strongest, healthiest, bravest men 
of a dozen different nations were shot down by 
the millions or left to drag out a miserable 
existence, sick or crippled for life. Silent were 
the wheels in many factories which once turned 
out the comforts and luxuries of civilization. 
There were no men to make toys for the 
children, or to work for mankind's happiness. 
The only mills and factories which were running 
full time were those that turned out the tools of 









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(12) 



The Map of Europe 13 

destruction and shot and shell for the guns. 
Nations poured out from fifty to sixty miUion 
dollars a day for the purpose of killing off the 
best men in Europe. Had the world gone mad? 
What was the reason for it all? 

In 1913 Germans traveled in Russia and 
Englishmen traveled in Germany freely and . 
safely. Germans were glad to trade with intercourse 
Russians, and happy to have Englishmen spend 
their money in Germany. France and Austria 
exchanged goods and their inhabitants traveled 
within each other's boundaries. A Frenchman 
might go anywhere through Germany and 
be welcomed. There was nothing to make the 
average German hate the average Englishman 
or Belgian. The citizen of Austria and the 
citizen of Russia could meet and find plenty of 
ground for friendship. 

We cannot explain this war, then, on the 

grounds of race hatred. One can imagine that ^^ 

,...,,., , No private 

two men living side by side and seeing each quarrel 

other every day might have trouble and grow 
to hate each other, but in this great war soldiers 
were shooting down other soldiers whom they 
had never seen before, with whom they had 
never exchanged a word, and it would not profit 
them if they killed a whole army of their oppon- 
ents. In many cases, the soldiers did not see 
the men whom they were kiUing. An officer 



14 



The Story of 



War at 
long range 



Govern- 
ment 
ordered 
slaughter 



What 
makes 
a govern- 
ment 



with a telescope watched where the shells from 
the cannon were falling and telephoned to the 
captain in charge to change the aim a trifle for 
his next shots. The men put in the projectile, 
closed and fired the gun. Once in a while, a 
shell from the invisible enemy, two, three, or 
four miles away, fell among them, killing and 
wounding. When a regiment of Austrians 
were ordered to charge the Russian trenches, 
they shot and bayoneted the Russians because 
they were told to do so by their officers, and the 
Russian soldiers shot the Austrians because 
their captains so ordered them. The officers 
on each side were only obeying orders received 
from their generals. The generals were only 
obeying orders from the government. 

In the end, then, we come back to the govern- 
ments, and we wonder what has caused these 
nations to fly at each other's throats. The 
question arises as to what makes up a govern- 
ment or why a government has the right to rule 
its people. 

In the United States, the government officials 
are simply the servants of the people. Practically 
every man in our country, unless he is a citizen of 
some foreign nation, has a right to vote, and in 
many of the states women, too, have a voice in 
the government. We, the people of the United 
States, can choose our own lawmakers, can 



The Map of Europe 15 

instruct them how to vote and, in some states, Govern- 
ment by 

can vote out of existence any law that they the people 
have made which we do not Hke. In all states, 
we can show our disapproval of what our law- 
makers have done by voting against them 
at the next election. Such is the government 
of a republic, a ^^ government of the people, 
by the people, and for the people," as Abraham 
Lincoln called it. In December, 1914, and again 
in December, 1915, a bill was introduced into 
the United States Congress, which provided 
that our country may not declare war except by 
the direct vote of its people. Some such law 
will probably soon be passed. 

How is it in Europe? Have the people of 
Germany or Russia the right toi vote on war? 
Were they consulted before their governments 
called them to arms and sent them to fight each 
other? It is plain that in order to understand 
what this war is about, we must look into the 
story of how the different governments of 
Europe came to be and learn why their peoples 
obey them so unquestioningly. 

We must remember that government by the 
people is a very new thing. One hundred and popular 
thirty years ago, even in the United States only govern- 
about one-fourth of the men had the right to new 
vote. These were citizens of property and 
wealth. They did not think a poor man was 



16 



The Story of 



worth considering. In England, a country 
which allows its people more voice in the govern- 
ment than almost any other nation in Europe, 
it is only within the last thirty years that all 
men could vote. There are some European 
countries, like Russia, where the people have 
practically no power at all and others, like Aus- 
tria, where they have very little voice in how 
they shall be governed. 

For over a thousand years, the men of Europe 
have obeyed without thinking when their lords 
and kings have ordered them to pick up their 
weapons and go to war. In many instances 
they have known nothing of the causes of the 
conflict or of what they were fighting for. 

A famous English writer has written a poem 
which illustrates how little the average citizen 
has ever known concerning the cause of war, and 
shows the difference between the way in which 
war was looked upon by the men of old and the 
way in which one should regard it. The poem 
runs as follows: 



The Battle of Blenheim 

It was a summer evening, 
Old Kaspar's work was done. 

And he before his cottage door 
Was sitting in the sun, 

And by him sported on the green 

His little grandchild Wilhelmine. 



The Map of Europe 17 

She saw her brother Peterkin 
Roll something large and round, 

Which he beside the rivulet 
In playing there had found, 

He came to ask what he had found 

That was so large and smooth and round. 

Old Kaspar took it from the boy, 

Who stood expectant by; 
And then the old man shook his head, 
And, with a natural sigh — 
'' 'Tis some poor fellow's skull," said he, 
''Who fell in the great victory. 

''I find them in the garden. 

For there's many hereabout; 
And often when I go to plow. 

The plowshare turns them out! 
For many a thousand men," said he, 
"Were slain in the great victory." 

''Now tell us what 'twas all about," 
Young Peterkin he cries; 
And little Wilhelmine looks up 
With wonder-waiting eyes — 
"Now tell us all about^the war. 
And what they fought each other for." 

"It was the Enghsh," Kaspar cried, 
"W^ho put the French to rout; 
But what they fought each other for 

I could not well make out; 
But everybody said," quoth he, 
"That 'twas a famous victory. 



18 The Story of 

^'My father lived at Blenheim then, 

Yon little stream hard by; 
They burnt his dwelling to the ground, 

And he was forced to fly; 
So with his wife and child he fled, 
Nor had he where to rest his head. 

''They say it was a shocking sight 

After the field was won — 
For many thousand bodies here 

Lay rotting in the sun; 
But things like that, you know, must be 
After a famous victory. 

''Great praise the Duke of Marlborough won, 
And our good Prince Eugene." 

"Why, 'twas a very wicked thing!" 
Said little Wilhelmine. 

"Nay, nay, my little girl," quoth he, 

" It was a famous victory. 

"And everybody praised the duke 
Who this great fight did win." 

"But what good came of it at last?" 
Quoth little Peterkin. 

"Why, that I cannot tell," said he; 

"But 'twas a famous victory." 

— Robert Southey. 

Old Kaspar, who has been used to such things 

Cui bono? ^^^ ^i^ ^i^^j cannot feel the wickedness and horror 

thl^^oVd of ^^ ^^^ battle. The children, on the other hand, 

it?) have a different idea of war. They are not 

satisfied until they know what it was all about 



The Map of Europe 19 

and what good came of it, and they feel that 
''it was a very wicked thing." If the men in 
the armies had stopped to ask the reason why 
they were kilhng each other and had refused to 
fight until they knew the truth, the history of 
the world would have been very different. 

One reason why we still have wars is that men 
refuse to think for themselves, because it is so J^^ 

tyranny of 

much easier to let their dead ancestors think the dead 
for them and to keep up customs which should 
have been changed ages ago. People in 
Europe have lived in the midst of wars or 
preparation for wars all their li\es. There 
never has been a time when Europe was not 
either a battlefield or a great drill-ground for 
armies. 

There was a time, long ago, when any man 
might kill another in Europe and not be 
punished for his deed. It was not thought 
wrong to take human life. Today it is not 
considered wrong to kill, provided a man is 
ordered to do so by his general or his king. 
When two kings go to war, each claiming his 
quarrel to be a just one, wholesale murder is 
done, and each side is made by its government 
to think itself very virtuous and wholly justified 
in its killing. It should be the great aim of 
everyone today to help to bring about lasting 
peace among all the nations. 


















(20) 



The Map of Europe 21 

In order to know how to do this, we must 

study the causes of the wars of the past. We ^^^^ 
^ ^ causes 

shall find, as we do so, that almost all wars can of wars 

be traced to one of four causes: (1) the instinct 

among barbarous tribes to fight with and 

plunder their neighbors; (2) the ambition of 

kings to enlarge their kingdoms; (3) the desire 

of the traders of one nation to increase their 

commerce at the expense of some other nation; 

(4) a people's wish to be free from the control 

of some other country and to become a nation 

by itself. Of the four reasons, only the last 

furnishes a just cause for war, and this cause 

has been brought about only when kings have 

sent their armies out, and forced into their 

kingdoms other peoples who wished to govern 

themselves. 

Questions for Review 

(a) Why must foreigners in the United States return to 
their native lands when summoned by their governments? 
(6) How is it that war helps to breed diseases? 

(c) Is race hatred a cause of war or a result of it? 

(d) Whom do we mean by the government in the United 
States? 

(e) Who controls the government in Russia? 
(/) Who in England? 

ig) Who in Germany? 

(h) Who in France? 

(i) In Southey's poem, how does the children's idea of the 
battle differ from that of their grandfather? Why? 

(-'') Are people less Ukely to protest against war if their 
forefathers have fought many wars? 

(k) What have been the four main causes of war? 



Chapter II 
ROME AND THE BARBARIAN TRIBES 

New governments in Europe. — Earliest times. — How 
civilization began. — The rise of Rome. — Roman civiliza- 
tion. — Roman cruelty. — The German tribes. — • The Slavic 
tribes. — The Celtic tribes. — The Huns and Moors. — The 
great Germanic invasions of the Roman world. 

To search for the causes of the great war 
which began in Europe in 1914, we must go 
far back into history. It should be remembered 
that many of the governments of today have not 
Hved as long as that of our own country. This 
is, perhaps, a new thought to some of us, who 
rather think that, as America is a new country, 
it is the baby among the great nations. But, 
one hundred and thirty years ago, when the 
United States was being formed, there was no 
nation called Italy; the peninsula which we 
now know by that name was cut up among nine 
or ten little governments. There was no 
nation known as Germany; the land which is 
in the present German empire was then divided 
among some thirty or thirty-five different 
rulers. There was no Republic of France; 
instead, France had a king whose will was law, 
and the French people were cruelly oppressed. 

22 



The Map of Europe 23 

There was no kingdom of Belgium, no kingdom 
of Serbia, of Bulgaria, of Roumania. The years ago 
kingdom of Norway was part of Denmark. 
The Republic of France, as we now know it, 
dates back only to 1871 ; the Empire of Germany 
and the United Kingdom of Italy to about the 
same time. The kingdoms of Roumania, Ser- 
bia, and Bulgaria have been independent of 
Turkey only since 1878. The kingdom of 
Albania did not exist before 1913. Most of 
the present nations of modern Europe, then, are 
very new. The troubles which led to the great 
war, however, originated in the dim twilight 
of history. 

In the earliest days, there were no separate 
countries or kingdoms. Men gathered to- ^^^ savage 
gether in little bands, each of which had its fathers 
leader. This leader was generally chosen be- 
cause of his bodily strength and courage. He 
was the best fighter of the tribe. The people 
did not have any lasting homes. They moved 
around from place to place, wherever they 
could find the best hunting and fishing. When 
two tribes wanted the same hunting grounds, 
they fought, and the weaker party had to give 
way. Selfishness was supreme. If a man Club law 
wanted anything which belonged to his weaker 
neighbor, he simply beat this neighbor over the 
head with his club, and took it. The stronger 



24 The Story of 

tribe attacked the weaker, without any thought 
of whether or not its quarrel was just. 

Gradually, in the southern and warmer parts 
of Europe, the tribes began to be more civilized. 
Beginnings Xowns sprang up. Ships were built. Trade 
civilization came to be one of the occupations. The fight- 
ing men needed weapons and armor; so there 
grew up artisans who were skilled in working 
metals. In Egypt and Syria there were people 
who had reached quite a high degree of civil- 
ization, and gradually the Europeans learned 
from them better ways of living. First the 
Greeks, then the Etruscans (E-trus'cans), a 
people who lived in Italy just north of where 
Rome now is, and finally the southern Italians 
^ learned that it was possible to live in cities, 

Change of _ , ^ , ' 

occupations without hunting and plundering. Grazing (the 

tending of flocks of animals) came to be the 

occupation of many. The owners of sheep or 

cattle drove their flocks from place to place, 

as grass and water failed them where they were. 

There was no separate ownership of land. 

At last came the rise of the city of Rome, 

which, starting out as the stronghold of a Uttle 

gang of robbers, spread its rule gradually over 

all the surrounding country. By this time, the 

barbarians of northern Europe had gotten past 

the use of clubs as weapons. They, too, 

iron had learned to make tools and arms of bronze. 



The Map of Europe 25 

and those living near civilized countries had 
obtained swords of iron. The club, however, 
still remained as the sign of authority. The 
large bludgeon of the chief was carried before 
the tribe as a sign of his power over them. You 
have all seen pictures of a king sitting on his 
throne and holding a wand or stick in his right 
hand. It is interesting to think that this Meaning 
scepter, which the present king of England ^?*^f 
carries on state occasions to remind his people scepter 
of his power, is a relic of the old, old days when 
his grandfather, many times removed, broke 
the head of his rival for leadership in the tribe 
and set up his mighty club for his awestruck 
people to worship. 

The city of Rome (at first a republic, after- 
wards an empire) spread its rule over all of Beginnings 
Italy, over all the shores of the Mediterranean ?! ^^® 

•^ ' Roman 

Sea, and finally over all the countries of Europe Empire 
south and west of the rivers Danube and Rhine. 
One of the emperors planted a colony north of 
the Danube near its mouth, and the descendants 
of these colonists are living in that same country 
today. They have not forgotten their origin, 
for they still call themselves Romans (Roumani 
[Roo-ma'ni]), and talk a language greatly 
resembling the Latin, which was the tongue 
spoken by the Romans of old. With the excep- 
tion of this country, which is now Roumania, 



26 



The Story of 




The Map of Europe 27 

the part of Europe north and east of the Danube I^® Rhine- 
Danube 
and Rhine was practically free from the Romans, boundary 

In this territory, roving bands wandered around, 

driving their cattle with them and clearing the 

woods of game. 

In some ways, the Romans were a highly 

civilized people. They had schools where their „ 

- Roman 

children were taught to read and write, to speak civilization 

Greek, and to work problems in geometry. 

They had magnificent pubhc buildings, fine 

temples and palaces. They built excellent paved 

roads all over the southern part of Europe, 

and had wonderful systems of aqueducts 

which supplied their cities with pure water from 

springs and lakes miles away. Their dress was 

made of fine cloth. They knew how to make 

paper, glass, and steel. 

On the other hand, they were a cruel and 

bloodthirsty people. Their favorite amusement „ 

Roman 
was to go to shows where gladiators fought, cruelty 

either with each other or with wild beasts. 
These gladiators were generally men from 
tribes which had fought against Rome. They 
had been captured and brought to that city, 
where they were trained to use certain weapons. 
Then on holidays, with all the people of Rome 
packed into big amphitheaters, these unfortu- 
nate captives were forced to fight with each 
other until one man of each pair was killed. 





^'i 


■nvMdi 


M "^ 


i IM 


M 


fFHi^';:! 







^*. 



Jfe"*«* 



\ 



THE LAST COMBAT OF THE GLADIATORS 



The Map of Europe 29 

It occasionally happened that one gladiator 
might be wounded, and lie helpless on the sand, gladiators 
The spectators would then shout to the victor- 
ious fighter to take his knife and finish what he 
had begun. In this way what would seem to us 
like cold-blooded murder was committed hun- 
dreds of times each year, while the fairest ladies 
and young girls of Rome sat and watched with 
eager interest. Thus, although the Romans 
had all the outward appearance of being civil- 
ized, they were savages at heart, and had no 
sympathy for any people who were not of their 
own race. 

In the early days, the Romans prided them- 
selves on their honor. They scorned a lie and Hardy, 

honorable 
looked down on anyone who would cheat or fighters 

deceive. They lived hardy lives and would not 
allow themselves luxuries. They rather de- 
spised the Greeks, because the latter surrounded 
themselves with comforts in life. The early 
Romans were fighters by nature. They had a 
certain god named Janus (our month January 
is named after him) and his temple was open 
only when they were engaged in war. It is a 
matter of history that during the twelve 
hundred years from the first building of Rome 
to the end of the Roman Empire, the temple of 
Janus was closed on but three occasions and 
then only for a short time. 



30 



The Story of 



Decay of 

Roman 

morals 



The 
Germans 



About five or six hundred years after the 
founding of Rome came several disastrous wars 
which killed off a great majority of her sturdy 
fighters. Rome was the victor in all of these 
wars, but she won them at tremendous cost to 
herself. With the killing off of her best and 
bravest men, a great deal of the old time honesty 
was lost. Very soon, we begin to hear of Roman 
governors who, when put in charge of conquered 
states, used their offices only to plunder the 
helpless inhabitants and to return to Rome after 
their terms were finished, laden with ill-gotten 
gains. Roman morals, which formerly were 
very strict, began to grow more lax, and in 
general the Roman civihzation showed signs 
of decay. 

To the north and east of the Roman Empire 
dwelt a people who were to become the leaders 
of the new nations of Europe. These were 
the free German tribes, which occupied the part 
of Europe bounded, roughly, by the rivers 
Danube and Rhine, the Baltic Sea, and the 
Carpathian Mountains. In many ways they 
were much less civilized than the Romans. 
They were clad in skins and furs instead of cloth. 
They lived in rough huts and tents or in caves 
dug in the sides of a hill. They, too, like the 
Romans, held human life cheap, and bloodshed 
and murder were common among them. As 



The Map of Europe 



31 



Hunting 
and 



a rule, the men scorned to work, leaving what 
ever labor there was, largely to the women, fTghting 
while they busied themselves in fighting and 
hunting, or, during their idle times, in gambUng. 
Nevertheless, these people, about the time that 
the Roman honesty began to disappear, had 
^'irtues more like those of the early Romans. 
They were frank and honorable. The men were 
faithful husbands and kind fathers, and their 




(JEKMA^^ UUIAU lATO BATTLE 



family life was very happy. They were bar- 
barous and rough, but those of them who were 
taken to Rome and leai-ned the Roman civil- 
ization made finer, nobler men than Rome was 
producing about the time of which we speak. 

To the east of these German tribes were the The Slavs 
Slavs, a people no better civihzed, but not so 
warlike in their nature. As the Germans, in 
later years, mo\^ed on to the west, the Slavs, 
in turn, moved westward and occupied much 



32 



The Story of 



of the land which had been left vacant by the 
Germans. 

The inhabitants of western Europe, that is, 
France, Spain, and the British Isles, were 
largely Celts. In fact, all Europe could be said 
to be divided up among four great peoples: 



ff^'~^ 




A HUN WARRIOR 



There were the Latins in Italy, the Celts in 
western Europe, the Germans in central Europe, 
and the Slavs to the east. All of these four 
famihes were distantly related, as can be proved 
by the languages which they spoke. The 
Greeks, while not belonging to any one of the 



The Map of Europe 33 

four, were also distant cousins of both Germans 

and Latins. Probably all five peoples are 

descended from one big family of tribes. 

In addition to these, there were, from time ^^ 

Huns and 

to time invasions of Europe by other nations Moors 
which did not have any connection by blood 
with Celts, Latins, Greeks, Germans, or Slavs. 
For instance, the ferocious Huns, a people of the 
yellow race, rushed into Europe about 400 a.d., 
but were beaten in a big battle by the Romans 
and Germans and finally went back to Asia. 
Two hundred years later, a great horde of Moors 
and Arabs from Africa crossed over into Europe 
by way of the Straits of Gibraltar, and at one 
time threatened to sweep before them all the 
Christian nations. For several hundred years 
after this, they held the southern part of Spain, 
but were finally driven out. 

Let us now come back to the story of what 
happened in Europe after the Romans had con- 
quered all the country south and west of the 
Danube and Rhine. The wild tribes of the 
Germans were restlessly roaming through the ^^^ . 
central part of Europe. They were not at Germans 
peace with each other. In fact, constant war 
was going on. Julius Caesar, the great Roman 
general, who conquered what is now France and 
added it to the Roman world, tells us that one 
great tribe of Germans, the Suevi (SweVi), 




GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR 
From IV bust in the British Museum 



The Map of Europe 35 

made it their boast that they would let no other 

tribe live anywhere near them. About a 

hundred years B.C., two great German tribes, TheCimbri 

the Cimbri and the Teutones, broke across the Teutones 

Rhine and poured into the Roman lands in 

countless numbers. For seven years they 

roamed about until at last they were conquered 

in two bloody battles by a Roman general, 

who was Caesar's uncle by marriage. After 

this time, the Romans tried to conquer the 

country of the Germans and they might have 

been successful but for a young German chief 

named Arminius. He had lived in Rome as a 

young man and had learned the Romans' 

method of war; so when an army came against 

his tribe, he taught the Germans how to defend f ^,"^^ 
' ° halted 

themselves. As a result, the Roman army was at last 
trapped in a big forest and slaughtered, almost 
to a man. 

This defeat ended any thought that the 
Romans may have had of conquering all Ger- 
many. For the next one hundred and fifty 
years, Germans and Romans lived apart, each 
afraid of the other. Then came a time when 
the Germans again became the attacking party. 
Other fiercer and wilder peoples, like the Huns, 
were assailing them in the east and pushing 

them forward. They finally broke over the The great 

'^ ^ Germanic 

Rhine-Danube boundary and poured across the invasions 



36 The Story of 

Roman Empire in wave after wave. Some of 
these tribes were the Vandals, Burgundians, 
Goths, Franks, and Lombards. The Roman 
Empire went to pieces under their savage 
attacks. 

Questions for Review 

(a) Why is it that after nations become civilized, people 
need less land to live on? 

(6) Are barbarous tribes more hkely to engage in war than 
civilized peoples? 

(c) Explain why clubs were the earliest weapons and why 
the more civilized tribes were better armed than the bar- 
barians. 

(d) Can a people be said to be civilized when they enjoy 
bloodshed and are not moved by the sufferings of others? 

(e) What was it that lowered the morals of the Roman 
republic? 

(/) In what way were the Germans better men than the 
later Romans? 

(r/) What w;i,s the religion of the Moors and the Arabs? 
(h) Why did the German tribes invade the Roman empire? 



Chapter III 
FROM CHIEFS TO KINGS 

The early chief a fighter.— The club the sign of power. — 
Free men led by a chief of their own choosing. — The first 
slaves. — Barbarians conquer civilized nations. — A ruling 
class among conquered people. — All men no longer free and 
equal. — The value of arms and armor. — The robber chiefs. — 
How kings first came. — Treaties between tribes follow con- 
stant wars.— Tribes unite for protection against enemies. — 
A king is chosen for the time being. — Some kings refuse to 
resign their office when the danger is past. — New generations 
grow up which never knew a kingless state. — The word 
"king" becomes sacred. 

The chiefs of the invading tribes knew no 

law except the rule of the sword. If they saw "^M ®"^ 

^ . -^ of Roman 

anything which they wanted, they took it. law 

Rich cities were plundered at will. They did 

not admit any man's ownership of anything. 

In the old days when the tribes were roaming 

around, there was no private ownership of land. 

Everything belonged to the tribe in common. 

Each man had a vote in the council of the tribe. 

Among these invaders, as with all barbarous 

tribes, there was no such thing as an absolute 

rule. A chief was obeyed because the greater 

part of his people considered him the best 

leader in war. Often, no doubt, when a chief 

had lost a battle and the majority of the tribe 

37 



38 



The Story of 



Govern- 
ment 
among 
barbarians 



had lost confidence in him, he resigned and let 
them choose a new chief. (For the same reason 
we frequently hear today 
that the prime minister, or 
leader of the go\'ernment, 
of some European country 
has resigned.) In spite of 
the fact, then, that the chief 
was stronger than any other 
man in the tribe, if the ma- 
jority of his warriors had 
combined against him to 
put another man in his place 
he could not ha\'e with- 
stood them. Government, 
in its beginning, was based 
upon the consent of the 
governed. All men in the 
primitive tribe were ecjual 
in rank, except as one was a 
better fighter than another, 
and the chief held the leadership in war only 
because the members of his tribe allowed him 
to keep it. 

It must be remembered that in these early 
days, the people had no fixed place of abode. 
Their only homes were rude huts which they 
could put up or tear down at very short notice; 
and so when they heard of more fertile lands or a 




A PRANKISH CHIEF 



The Map of Europe 39 

warmer climate across the mountains to the 
south they used to pull up stakes and migrate 
in a body, never to return. It was always the 
more savage and uncivilized peoples who were 
most likely to migrate. The lands which they 
wished to seize they generally found already 
settled by other tribes, more civilized and 




MOVABLE HUT8 OF EARLY GERMANS 

hence more peaceful, occupied in trade and 
agriculture, having gradually turned to these 
pursuits from their former habits of hunting 
and fighting. Sometimes these more civilized 
and peace-loving people were able, by their 
better weapons and superior knowledge of the 
art of fortifying, to beat back the invasion of Barbarians 
the immigrating barbarians. Oftener, though, overcome 
the rougher, ruder tribes were the victors, and civilized 



40 



The Story of 



settled down among the people they had con- 
quered, to rule them, doing no work themselves, 
but forcing the conquered ones to feed and 
clothe them. 

History is full of instances of such conquests, 

and they were taking place, no doubt, ages 

migrations before the times from which our earliest records 

date. The best examples, howe\'er, are to 

be found in the invasions of the Roman Empire 




GOTHS ON THE MARCH 



by the Germanic tribes to which we have 
referred above. The country between the 
Rhine River and the Pyrenees Mountains, 
which had been called Gaul when the Gauls 
lived there, became France when the Franks 
conquered the Gauls and stayed to live among 
them. In like manner, two German tribes 
became the master races in Spain. The Bur- 
gundians came down from the shores of the 
Baltic Sea and gave their name to their new 
home in the fertile valley of the Saone (Son); 



The Map of Europe 41 

the Vandals came out of Germany to roam 

through Spain, finally founding a kingdom in 

Africa; while the Lombards crossed the Alps to 

become the masters of the Valley of the Po, 

whither the Gauls had gone before them, seven 

hundred years earlier. 

The island now known as Great Britain, , 

Invasions 
which was mhabited two thousand vears ago of Britain 




FRANKS CROSSING THE RHINE 



by the Britons and Gaels, Celtic peoples, was 
overrun and conquered in part about 450 a.d. 
by the Saxons and Angles, Germanic tribes, 
after whom part of the island was called Angle- 
land. (The men from the south of England are 
of the same blood as the Saxons in the German 
army, against whom they had to fight in the 
great war.) Then came Danes, who partially 



42 



The Story of 



The 
Normans 



conquered the Angles and Saxons, and after 
them, m 1066 a.d., the country was again 
conquered by the Normans, descendants of some 
Norsemen, who, one hundred and fifty years 
before, had come down from Norway and con- 
quered a large territory in the northwestern 
part of France. 

In some cases, the conquered tribes moved 



4iip- - ^;-,^s^ 




MEN OF NORMANDY LANDING IN ENGLAND 

on to other lands, leaving their former homes 
to their conquerors. In this way the Britons 
and Gaels gave up the greater part of their land 
to the Angles and Saxons and withdrew to 
the hills and mountains of Wales, Cornwall, 
and northern Scotland. In other cases, the con- 
quered people and their conquerors inhabited the 
same lands side by side, as the Normans settled 
down in England among the Anglo-Saxons. 



The Map of Europe 43 

In the early days of savagery, one tribe would 
frequently make a raid upon another neighbor- . . 
ing tribe arid bring home with it some cap- of slavery 
tives who became slaves, working without pay 
for their conquerors and possessing no more 
rights than beasts of burden. (This custom 
exists today in the interior of Africa, and was 
responsible for the infamous African slave trade. 
Black captives were sold to white traders 
through the greed of their captors, who forgot 
that their own relatives and friends might be 
carried off and sold across the seas by some other 
tribe of blacks.) 

When these slaves were kept as the servants 
of their conquerors, their number was very small 
as compared with that of their masters. When, 
on the other hand, a tribe settled among a j^^^g 
people whom they had conquered, they often slaves 
found themselves fewer in numbers, and kept masters 
their leadership only by their greater strength 
and fighting ability. 

Here there had arisen a new situation: all 

men were no longer equal, led by a chief of their ^^ longer 

are ail 
own choosing, but instead, the greater part of men equal 

them now had no voice in the government. 

They had become subjects, working to earn 

their own living and also, as has been said, 

to support in idleness their conquerors. 

This ability of the few to rule the many and 



The value 
of armor 



44 



The Story of 



force them to support their masters was in- 
creased as certain peoples learned better than 
others how to make strong armor and effective 
weapons. Nearly five hundred years before 
the time of Christ, at the battle of Marathon 
(Mar'a thon), the Greeks discovered that one 
Greek, clad in metal armor and armed with a 
long spear, was worth ten Persians wearing 
leather and carrying a bow and arrows or a short 




ALEXANDER DEFEATING THE PERSIANS 



«sword. One hundred and sixty years later, 
a small army of well-equipped Macedonian 
Greeks, led by that wonderful general, Alex- 
ander the Great, defeated nearly forty times 
its number of Persians in a great battle in Asia 
and conquered a vast empire. 

In later times, as better and better armor 
was made, the question of wealth entered in. 
The chief who had money enough to buy the 



The Map of Europe 45 

best arms for his men could defeat his poorer 
neighbor and force him to pay money as to a 
ruler. Finally, in the so-called ''Middle Ages," 
before the invention of gunpowder, one knight, 
armed from crown to sole in steel, was worth 
in battle as much as one hundred poorly-armed 
farmers or ''peasants" as they are called in 
Europe. 

In the "Dark Ages,"* after all these bar- 
barians that we have named had swarmed over ^, 

The robber 

Europe, and before the governments of modern chiefs 
times were fully grown, there were hundreds of 
robber chiefs, who, scattered throughout a 
country, were in the habit of collecting tribute 
at the point of the sword from the peaceful 
peasants who lived near. This tribute they 
collected in some cases, regularly, a fixed amount 
each month or year, just as if they had a right 
to collect it, like a government tax collector. 
It might be money or food or fodder, or fuel. 
The robber chiefs were well armed themselves 
and were able to give good weapons and armor 
to their men, who lived either in the chief's 
castle or in small houses built very near it. 
They likewise plundered any travelers who came 
by, unless their numbers and weapons made 
them look too dangerous to be attacked. But the 

*The "Dark Ages" came before the "Middle Ages." They were called 
"dark" because the barbarians had extinguished nearly all civilization and 
learning. 



46 



The Story of 




A KNIGHT IN ARMOR 



i 



The Map of Europe 47 

regular tribute forced from the peaceful farm- 
ers was the chief source of their income. The 

robber chief and his men lived a life of idleness J^,^, 

fighters 

when they were not out upon some raid for as parasites 
plunder, and the honest, industrious peasants 
worked hard enough to support both their own 
families and those of the robbers. 

These robber chiefs had no right but might. 
They were outlaws, and lived either in a country 
which had no government and laws, or in one 
whose government was too weak to protect its 
people. They were no worse, however, than 
the so-called feudal barons who came after them, 
who oppressed the people even more, because 
they had on their side whatever law and govern- 
ment existed in those days. 

Now let us stop to consider how first there 
came to be kings. In the early days of the ?"}^^^ 

° , ^ ^ indepen- 

human race and also in later days among dent tribes 
barbarous peoples, the land was very sparsely 
settled. The reason lay in the chief occupa- 
tions of the men. A small tribe might inhabit 
a great stretch of territory through which they 
wandered to keep within reach of plenty of 
game. As time went on, however, the popu- 
lation increased, and, as agriculture took the 
place of hunting, and homes became more 
lasting, tribes found themselves living in smaller 
and smaller tracts of land, and hence nearer to 



48 The Story of 

their neighbors. In some cases, constant fight- 
ing went on, just as Caesar tells us that two 
thousand years ago, the Swiss and the Germans 
fought almost daily battles back and forth 
across the Rhine. In other cases, the tribes 
found it better for all concerned to make 
treaties of peace with their neighbors, and if 
they did not exchange visits and mix on friendly 
terms, at least they did not attack each other. 
Finally, one day there would come to several 
tribes which had treaties with each other a 
common danger, such as an invasion by some 
horde of another race or nation. Common 
interest would drive them together for mutual 
protection, and the chief of some one of them 
would be chosen to lead their joint army. In 
this way, we find the fifteen tribes of the Bel- 
gians uniting against the Roman army led by 
Julius Caesar, and electing as king over them 
the chief of one of the tribes ''on account of his 
justice and wisdom." Five years later, in the 
year 52 b.c, we find practically all the inhabi- 
tants of what is now France united into a nation 
under the leadership of Vercingetorix (Ver sin- 
jet 'o riks) in one last effort to free themselves 
from Rome. Five hundred years later, the 
Romans themselves were driven to join forces 
with two of the Germanic tribes to check the 
swift invasion of the terrible Huns. 



The Map of Europe 49 

In some cases, these alliances were only for 
a short time and the kingships were merely tem- 
porary. In other cases, the wars that drove 
the tribes to unite under one great chief or king g^^^^ 

lasted for years or even centuries, so that new Kingships 
^ _ outlive the 

generations grew up who had never lived under wars 

any other government than that of a king. 

Thus when the wars were ended, the tribes 

continued to be ruled by the one man, although 

the reason for the kingship had ceased to be. 

In the days of the Roman republic, from 500 to 

100 B.C., when grave danger arose, the senate, 

or council of elders, appointed one man who was 

called the dictator, and this dictator ruled like 

an absolute monarch until the danger was past. 

Then, like the famous Cincinnatus, he gave up 

the position and retired to private life. The 

first lasting kingships, then, began, as it were, 

by the refusal of some dictator to resign when 

the need for his rule was ended. 

By this time, the custom of choosing the son S®" 

succeeds 

of a chief or king to take his father's place was father 
fairly well settled, and it did not take long to 
have it understood as a regular thing that at a 
king's death he should be followed by his oldest 
son. Often there were quarrels and even civil 
wars caused by ambitious younger sons, who 
did not submit to their elder brothers without 
a struggle, but as people grew to be more civil- 



50 



The Story of 



ized and peace-loving, they found it better 
to have the oldest son looked upon as the right- 
ful heir to the kingship. 

As kingdoms grew larger, and more and more 
people came to be busied in agriculture, trade, 
and even, on a small scale, in manufacture, the 
warriors grew fewer in proportion, and people 
began to forget that the king was originally 
only a war leader, and that the office was created 
through mihtary need. They came to regard 
the rule of the king as a matter of course and 
stopped thinking of themselves as having any 
right to say how they should be governed. 
Kings were quick to foster this feeling. For 
the purpose of making their own positions sure, 
they were in the habit of impressing it upon 
their people that the kingship was a divine 
institution. They proclaimed that the office of 
king was made by the gods, or in Christian 
nations, by God, and that it was the divine will 
that the people of the nations should be ruled 
by kings. The great Roman orator, Cicero 
(Cis'e ro), in a speech delivered in the year 
66 B.C., referring to people who lived in king- 
doms, says that the name of king ^' seems to 
them a great and sacred thing." This same 
feeling has lasted through all the ages down 
to the present time, and the majority of the 
people in European kingdoms, even among the 



The Map of Europe 51 

educated classes, still look upon a king as a 
superior being, and are made happy and proud 
if they ever have a chance to do him a service 
of any sort. 

Questions for Review 

(a) Why was it that in barbarian tribes there was no 
private ownership of land? 

(6) What is meant by saying that government was based 
upon the consent of the governed? 

(c) Was there anything besides love of plunder that 
induced the German tribes to move southward? 

(d) Explain the beginnings of slavery. 

(c) Explain the value of armor in early times. 

(/) What is meant by the "Dark Ages"? 

ig) What is meant by saying that the fighting men were 
parasites? 

{h) When the first kings were chosen was it intended that 
they should be rulers for hfe? 

{i) Is it easy for a man in power to retain this power? 

ij) Why is it that most Europeans bow low before a king? 



Chapter IV 
MASTER AND MAN 

The land is the king's. — He lends it to barons. — Barons 
lend it to knights and smaller barons. — Smaller barons 
collect rent for it from the peasants. — A father's lands are lent 
to his son. — Barons pay for the land by furnishing men for 
the king's wars. — No account is taken of the rights of the 
peasant. — The peasant, the only producer, is despised by the 
fighting men. — If a baron rebels, his men must rebel also.— 
Dukes against kings. — What killed the feudal system.— 
Feudal wrongs alive today. 

When one great tribe or nation invaded and 
conquered a country, as the Ostrogoths came 
into Italy in the year 489 a.d., or as the Nor- 
mans entered England in 1066, their king at 
once took it for granted that he owned all the 
conquered land. In some cases, he might 
divide the kingdom up among his chiefs, giving 
a county to each of forty or fifty leaders. 
These great leaders (dukes or barons, as they 
were called in the Norman-French language, 
or earls, as the English named them) would in 
turn each divide up his county among several 
less important chiefs, whom we may call lesser 
or little barons. Each little baron might have 
several knights and squires, who lived in or near 
his castle and had received from him tracts of 



The Map of Europe 



53 




A NORMAN CASTLE IN ENGLAND 



land corresponding in size, perhaps, to the 
American township and who, therefore, fought 
under his banner in war. 

Each baron had under him a strong body 
of fighting men, ''men-at-arms," as they were 

x lie liicH" 

called, or ''retainers," who in return for their at-arms 
"keep," that is, their food and lodging, and a 
chance to share the plunder gained in war, 
swore to be faithful to him, became his men, 
and gave him the service called homage. 



54 The Story of 

(This word comes from hdmo, the Latin for 
^'man.") The lesser baron, in turn, swore 
homage to, and was the ''man" of the great 
baron or earl. Whenever the earl called on 
these lesser chiefs to gather their fighting men 
and report to him, the}^ had to obey, serving 
him as unquestioningly as their squires and 
retainers obeyed them. The earl or duke swore 
homage to the king, from whom he had received 
his land. 

This, then, was the feudal system (so named 
from the word feudtim, which, in Latin, meant 
a piece of land the use of which was given to a 
man in return for his services in war), a system 
which reversed the natural law^s of society, and 
stood it on its apex, like a cone balanced on its 
point. For instead of saying that the land was 
the property of the people of the tribe or nation, 
it started by taking for granted that the land 
all belonged to the king. The idea was that 
the king did not give the land, outright, to 
his dukes and earls, but that he gave them, in 
return for their faithful support and service in 
war, the use of the land during their lifetime, 
or so long as they remained true to him. In 
Macbeth, we read how, for his treason, the 
lands of the thane (earl) of Cawdor were taken 
from him by the Scottish king and given to the 
thane of Glamis. The lands thus lent were 



The Map of Europe 55 

called fiefs. Upon the death of the tenant, 

they went back to the king or duke who had 

given them in the first place, and he at once 

gave them to some other one of his followers 

upon the same terms. It often happened that a father's 

upon the death of an earl or baron his son was !^^?^.^^^^ 
^ lent to the 

granted the lands which his father had held, oldest son 

Finally, in many counties, it grew into a 

custom, and the oldest son took possession of 

his father's fief, but not without first going 

to the king and swearing homage and fidelity 

to him. 

Two things must be kept in mind if we are to 

understand the system fully. In the first 

place, in the division of the lands among the 

barons of the conquering nation, no account 

was taken of the peasants. As they were of the 

defeated people, their rights to the land were r^^^ ^^^^ 

not once considered. In many countries, the pwners 

^ ' have no 

victors thought of them as part and parcel rights 

of the conquered territory. They '^went with" 

the land and were considered by the lord of the 

county as merely his servants. When one lord 

turned over a farm to another, the farmers were 

part of the bargain. If any of them tried to 

run away, they were brought back and whipped. 

They tilled the land and raised live stock, 

giving a certain share of their yearly crop and a 

certain number of beeves, hogs, sheep, etc., to 




(56) 



11: 



The Map of Europe 57 

the lord, as rent for the land, much as the free 
farmers in other countries paid tribute to the 
robber chieftains. Thus the one class of people 
who really earned their right to live, by pro- 
ducing wealth, were oppressed and robbed by 
all the others. Note this point, for there are 
wrongs existing today that are due to the fact 
that the feudal system is not wholly stamped 
out in some countries. 

In the second place, it must be noted that 
the king was not the direct master of all the ^ curious 
people. Only the great lords had sworn homage scheme of 
to him. He was lord of the dukes, earls, and ment 
barons. The less important barons swore 
homage to the great barons, and the knights, 
squires, retainers, and yeomen swore homage 
to the lesser barons. If a lesser baron had sub- 
divided his fief among certain knights and 
squires, the peasants owed allegiance, not 
to him, but to the squire to whom they had been 
assigned. Thus, if a ''man" rebelled against 
his lord, all of his knights, retainers, etc., must 
rebel also. If, for instance, a great duke refused 
to obey his king and broke his oath of allegiance, 
all his little barons and knights must turn dis- 
loyal too, or rather, must remain loyal, for their 
oaths had been taken to support the duke, and 

not the king. History is full of such cases. Dukes 
* -^ against 

In many instances, dukes became so powerful kings 



58 



The Story of 



that they were able to make war on even terms 
with kings. The great Dukes of Burgundy 
for a time kept the kings of France in awe of 
their power; the Duke of Northumberland in 
1403 raised an army that almost overthrew 
King Henry Fourth of England; the Duke of 
York, in 1461, drove Henry Sixth from the 
throne of Eng- 
land and became 
king in his place. 
A strange case 
arose when, in 
1066, William, 
who as duke of 
Normandy had 
sworn homage 
to the king of 
France, became, 

tnrougn con- william the conqueror 

quest, king of 

England. His sons, great-grandsons, and 
great-great-grandsons continued for one hun- 
dred and fifty years to be obliged to swear 
allegiance to the French kings in order to keep 
the duchy of Normandy. It was as if the 
Governor of Texas had led an army into Mexico, 
conquered it, and become Emperor of that 
country, without resigning his governorship or 
giving up his American citizenship. 




The Map of Europe 59 

Two things which tended to break down the 

feudal system and bring more power to the ^j^^^ 

common people were, first, the invention of J^^^^^, *^^ 

feudal 

gunpowder, and, second, the rise of towns. A system 

man with a musket could bring down a knight 

in armor as easily as he could the most poorly 

armored peasant. Kings, in fighting to control 

their great lords, gave more freedom to citizens 

of towns in return for their help. The king's 

armies came to be recruited largely from 

townspeople, who were made correspondingly 

free from the feudal lords. 

The rule of the feudal system, that each man 

owed a certain amount of military service to his ^ feudal 

rule alive 
ruler has lasted to the present day and is today 

responsible for much of the misery that now 

exists. Kings went to war with each other 

simply to increase their territories. The more 

land a king had under his control, the more 

people who owed him taxes, and the greater 

number he could get into his army, the greater 

became his ambition to spread his kingdom 

still farther. 

Questions for Review 

(a) How was it that the king of a tribe could claim to own 
all the land in the country which he had invaded? 

(6) Did the kings, lords, and fighting men contribute 
anything to the welfare of the working classes? 

(c) Would the peasants have been better off if all the fight- 
ing men, lords, dukes, kings, etc., had suddenly been killed? 



60 The Story of 

(d) Can you see why in some countries in Europe a man who 
earns his Uving is looked down upon by the nobles? 

(e) What is meant by saying that the feudal system turns 
society upside down? 

(/) Why did the farmers continue to feed the fighting men? 

(g) Explain how the use of gunpowder in warfare helped to 
break up the feudal system. 

(h) How did the rise of cities also help to do away v/ith the 
feudal system? 



I 



Chapter V 
A BABEL OF TONGUES 

The great family of languages. — Few languages in Europe 
not belonging to the family. — The dying Celtic languages. — 
The three branches of the Germanic family. — The influence 
of the Latin tongue on the south of Europe. — - The many 
Slavic peoples. — The map as divided by kings without 
regard to peoples and languages. — The strange mixture in 
Austria-Hungary. — The southeast of Europe. — The Greeks 
and Dacians. — The Roman colonists. — The Slavs. — The 
Volgars. — The Skipetars. — A hopeless mixture. 

In Chapter II it was pointed out that almost 
all the peoples of Europe were related, in one 
big family of tribes. It is likely that the 
forefathers of the Celts, the Latins, the Ger- 
mans, the Greeks, and the Slavs belonged to one 
big tribe which had its home back in the high- 
lands of Central Asia. As a general rule, the 
relationship of peoples to each other can be 
told by the languages which they speak. If 
two tribes are related because their forefathers 
once belonged to the same tribe, it is almost Relation- 
certain that they will show this relationship in ship shown 

^ ^ through 

their languages. language 

The language of England a thousand years 
ago was very much like the language of the 
Germans, for the English were originall}^ Ger- 

61 



62 The Story of 

man tribes. E\'en today, it is easy to see that 
English is a Germanic language. Take the 
English words house, father, mother, brother, 
water, here, is, etc. The German words which 
mean the same are haus, rater, mutter, hruder, 
English wasser, hier, ist. It is very plain that the two 

a Germanic 

tongue languages must have come from the same 
source. 

There are professors in European colleges who 
have spent their whole lives studying this 
relationship of languages. These men ha\'e 
proved not only that almost all the languages of 
Europe are related, but that the language of 
the Persians, and that of some of the old tribes in 
Hindustan also belong to one great family 
of tongues. Let us take the word for mother. 

The great ° ^ 

family In one of the ancient languages of Hindustan it 

was matr; in the Greek, it was matar: in the 
Latin mater (matar) ; in the Bohemian matka ; 
in the Gei-man mutter; in the Spanish mddre; 
in the Norwegian moder, etc. This great 
family of languages is called "the Indo-Euro- 
pean group," because the tribes which spoke 
them, originally inhabitants of Asia, have scat- 
tered all over India and Europe. The only 
peoples in Europe whose languages do not belong 
to it are the Finns and Laplanders of the north, 
the Basques (Basks) of the Pyrenees Mountains, 
the Hungarians, the Gypsies, and the Turks. 



The Map of Europe 63 

The descendants of the old Celtic peoples 
have not kept up the Celtic languages to any Jilfearance 

great extent. The reason for this is that first ^ f^^ 
" , Celtic 

the Romans and then the Germanic tribes con- tongues 

quered most of the lands where the Celts lived. 
In this way, Spain, Portugal, France, and 
Belgium now talk languages that have grown 
from the Latin, the language of Rome. 
The Celts in the British Isles now all talk 
English, because the Enghsh, who were a 
Germanic people, conquered them and forced 
them" to use their language. Patriotic Irish- 
men and Welshmen (who are descendants of 
the Celtic tribes) are trying to keep alive the 
Irish and Welsh languages, but all of the young 
people in the British Isles learn English, and 
they are generally content to talk only one 
language. The other Celtic languages which 
have existed within the last one hundred years 
are the Gaelic of the north of Scotland, the 
Breton of western France, and the Cornish of 
the southwestern corner of England. 

The Germanic languages (sometimes called 

Teutonic) are found in three parts of Europe I^® 

. Germanic 

today. The bcandmavian languages, Danish, languages 

Norwegian, and Swedish, belong to this family. 

Western Austria and Germany form, with 

Holland and Western Belgium, a second group 

of German-speaking nations. (The people of 



Greek and 
Albanian 



64 The Story of 

eastern Belgium are Celts and talk a kind of 
French.) The third part of Europe which uses 
a Germanic language is England. 

In an earlier chapter we learned how the 
Celts in France, Spain, and Poitugal gave up 
their own languages and used the Latin. Latin 
languages today are found also in the southern 
and western parts of Switzerland, all over Italy, 
and in Roumania. 

We learned also about the Slavs who lived 
to the eastward of the Germanic tribes. When 
the Germans moved west, these Slavs followed 
them and occupied the lands which had just 
been left vacant. In this way, we find Slavic 
peoples talking Slavic (sometimes called Slav- 
onic) languages in the parts of Europe to the 
east and south of the Germans. More than 
half of the inhabitants of Austria-Hungary 
are Slavs, although the Austrians proper are a 
Germanic people, and the Hungarians do not 
belong to the Indo-European family at all. 
The Serbians and Montenegrins are Slavs. The 
Poles and Russians are Slavs. The Bulgarians 
speak a Slavic language and have some Slavic 
blood in them, although, as will be pointed 
out later, originally they did not belong to 
the Slavic family. 

The Greeks and Albanians belong to the great 
Indo-European family of tribes, but their 



The Map of Europe 



65 




66 



The Story of 




1 



The Map of Europe 67 

languages are not closely related to any of the 
four great branches. 

The two maps on pages 65 and 66 are very 
much aUke and yet in some respects very 
different. The first shows how Europe is largely maps 
inhabited by peoples of the great Indo- 
European family. Those who are descended 
from the Celts are marked Celtic even though 
today they have given up their Celtic language, 
as have the Cornish in England and the inhab- 
itants of Spain, France, eastern Belgium, and 
the greater part of Ireland. The Bulgarians 
are marked as not belonging to the great 
family, although they speak a Slavic language. 

In the second map, the distribution of lan- 
guages is shown. You will notice that the 
Celtic languages are found only in small parts of 
the British Isles, and in the westernmost point 
of France. The Bulgarians are here marked 
Slavic because their language belongs to that 
branch. One of the most curious things about 
the two maps is the presence of little spots like 
islands, particularly made up of German- 
speaking peoples. There are several of these 
little islands in Russia. They have been there 
for nearly two hundred years. A traveler 
crossing the southern part of Russia is aston- 
ished to find districts as large as an American 
county where not a word of Russian is spoken. 



68 



The Story of 



(c) Celtic branch 



THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY OF LANGUAGES 

(a) Hindu branch 

(h) Persian branch 

Gae'hc (northern Scotland) 

\A'elsh 

Cornish (dead) 

Erse (Irish) 

Bre'ton (western France) 

' Portuguese 
Spanish 
French 

Romansh (southeastern Switzerland) 
Italian 
Roumanian 

Norwegian 

Danish 

Swedish 

Dutch 

Flemish (Belgium) 

Low German 

High German 

English 



((/) Latin branch 



(c) Germanic branch 



(/) Slavonic ^ 
branch 



> Baltic Stat 



Russian 
Pohsh 

Lettish /Baltic states of Russia 
Lithuanian/ 
Old Prussian (dead) 

Czech (Bohemian [pronounced Check] ) 
Slo'vak (northern Hungary) 
Serbian 
Bulgarian 

Slove'nian (southw^estern Austria) 
Croa'tian (southern Austria) 
Ruthe'nian (northeastern Austria-Hungary, 
and southwestern Russia) 



(g) Greek 
(h) Alba'nian 



The Map of Europe 69 

The people are all of Germanic blood, although 
they live under the government of Russia. 
In the same way, there is a large German island isolated 
in the midst of the Roumanians in Transylvania speaking 
and another between the Slovaks and Poles at nities 
the foot of the Carpathian Mountains. There 
is a large Hungarian island in Transylvania 
also, entirely surrounded by Germans and 
Roumanians. The table on the opposite page 
shows the main branches of the Indo-Euro- 
pean family that are found in Europe. 

The main source of the present trouble in 
Europe is that kings and their ministers and 
generals, like their ancestors, the feudal lords, 
never considered the wishes of the people when 

they changed the boundaries of kingdoms, ^^"f" 

made 

Austria-Hungary is a good example. The maps 
Austrians and Hungarians were two very 
different peoples. They had nothing in com- 
mon and did not wish to be joined under one 
ruler, but a king of Hungary, dying, left no son 
to succeed him, and his only daughter was 
married to the archduke of Austria. This 
archduke of Austria (a descendant of the Tjie case 

of Austria- 
counts of Hapsburg) was also emperor of Ger- Hungary 

many and king of Bohemia, although the 

Bohemian people had not chosen him as their 

ruler. The Hungarians, before their union 

with Austria, had conquered certain Slavic 



70 The Story of 

tribes and part of the Roumanians. Later 
Austria annexed part of Poland. In this 
way, the empire became a jumble of lan- 
guages and nationalities. When its congress 
is called together, the official announcement is 
read in eleven different languages. Forty-one 
different dialects are talked in an area not as 
large as that of the state of Texas. 

We must remember that besides the literary 
or written languages of each country there are 
several spoken dialects. A man from Devon- 
shire, England, meeting a man from Yorkshire 
in the north of the same country, has difficulty 
in understanding many words in his speech. 
The language of the south of Scotland also is 
English, although it is very different from the 
English that we in America are taught. A 
Frenchman from the Pyrenees Mountains 
was taught in school to speak and read the 
French language as we find it in books. Yet 
besides this, he knows a dialect that is talked 
by the country people around him, that can 
not be understood by the peasants from the 
north of France near the Flemish border. 
The man who lives in the east of France can 
understand the dialect of the Italians from the 
west of Italy much better than he can that of 
the Frenchman from the Atlantic coast. 

In America, with people moving around 



The Map of Europe 71 

from place to place by means -of stage coach, 
steamboat, and railroad, there has been no 
great chance to develop dialects, although we 
can instantly tell the New Englander, the south- 
erner, or the westerner by his speech. It should 
be remembered that in Europe, for centuries, the 
people were kept on their own farms or in their 
own towns. The result of this was that each lit- ^^^^ 
tie village or city has its own peculiar language, tillage 

I13.S liS 

It is said that persons who liave studied such language 

matters carefully, after conversing with a man 

from Europe, can tell within thirty miles where 

his home used to be in the old country. There 

are no sharply marked boundaries of languages. 

The dialects of France shade oE into those of 

Spain on the one hand and into those of the 

Flemish and the Italian on the other. 

The British Isles furnish us with four or five 

different nationalities. The people of the north peoples 

of Ireland are really lowland Scotch of Germanic 9^ }}^^- 
^ British 

descent, while the other three-fourths of Ireland Isles 
is inhabited by Celts. To make the difTerence 
all the greater, the Celts are almost universally 
Catholics, while the Scotch-Irish are Protes- 
tants. The people of the north of Scotland 
are Gaels, a Celtic race having no connection 
in language or blood with the people of the 
southern half of that country. The Welsh 
are a Celtic people, and have little sympathy 



72 



The Story of 




The Map of Europe 73 

with the Enghsh, who are a Germanic people. 
The Welsh and the Cornish of Cornwall and 
the people of highland Scotland are the descend- EngnST' 
ants of the ancient Britons and Gaels who conquer 

Celtic 

inhabited the island when Julius Caesar and the British 
Romans first landed there. Then five hundred 
years afterwards, as has already been told, came 
great swarms of Germans (Angles, Saxons, and 
Jutes), who drove the Britons to the west and 
north, and settled the country now known as 
England. After these, you will recall, came a 
number of Danes, another Germanic people, 
who settled the east coast of England. Two hun- 
dred years later, the Normans came from 
France. These Normans had been living in 
France for a century or two, but had come origi- 
nally from Norway. Normans, Danes, Angles, 
and Saxons all mixed to make the modern Eng- 
lish. Together, they fought the Scotch, the 
Welsh, and the Irish, and having conquered 
them, oppressed them cruelly for many centuries. 
But it is in the southeastern corner of Europe 
that one finds the worst jumble of nationalities. 
Six hundred years before Christ, the Greeks 
and their rougher cousins, the Thracians, 

Macedonians, and Dacians inhabited this dis- '^^®, . 

seething 

trict. When one of the Roman Emperors Balkans 
conquered the Dacians about 100 a.d., (see 
page 25) he planted a large Roman colony 



74 



The Story of 




The Map of Europe 75 

north of the Danube River. Then came the 
West Goths, who swept into this country, but 
soon left it for the west of Europe. Next came 
the Slavic tribes who are the ancestors of the 
modern Serbs. Following these, came a large 
tribe which did not belong to the Indo-European 
family, but was distantly related to the Finns 
and the Turks. These people were called the The people 

^ ^ from the 

Volgars, for they came from the country around Volga 

the River Volga. Before long, we find them 
called the Bulgars. (The letters B and V are 
often interchanged in the languages of south- 
eastern Europe. The people of western Europe 
used to call the country of the Serbs Servia, 
but the Serbs objected, saying that the word 
servio, in Latin, means ^Ho be a slave," and 
that as they were not slaves, they wanted their 
country to be called by its true name, Serbia. 
The Greeks, on the other hand, pronounce the 
letter B as though it were V.) 

A strange thing happened to the Volgars or 
Bulgars. They completely gave up their A curious 
Asiatic language and adopted a new one, which language 
became in time the purest of the Slavic tongues. 
They intermarried with the Slavs around them 
and adopted Slavic names. They founded a 
flourishing nation which lay between the king- 
dom of Serbia and the Greek Empire of Con- 
stantinople. 



76 



The Story of 



A Latin 
island 
among the 
Slavs 



North of the Bulgars lay the country of the 
Roumani (roo ma'ni) . These people claimed 
to be descended from the Roman Emperor's 
colonists, as was previously told, but the reason 
their language is so much like the Italian is 




A TYPICAL BULGARIAN FAMILY 

that a large number of people from the north 
of Italy moved into the country nearly a thou- 
sand years after the first Roman colonists 
settled there. From 900 to 1300 a.d., south- 
eastern Europe was inhabited by Serbians, 
Bulgarians, Roumanians, and Greeks. 

A fifth people perhaps ought to be counted 
here, the Albanians. (See map, p. 74.) This 
tribe is descended from the lUyrians, who inhab- 
ited the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea even 
before the time of the Roman Empire. Their 



The Map of Europe 77 

language, like the Greek, is a branch of the Indo- 
European family which is neither Latin, Celtic, 
Germanic, nor Slavic. They are distant cousins r^^ie 
of the Italians and are also slightly related to ^?^t^"^®^ 

^ -^ Skipetars 

the Greeks. They are a wild, fierce, uncivil- of Albania 
ized people, and have never known the meaning 
of law and order. Robbery and warfare are 
common. Each village is always fighting with 
the people of the neighboring towns. The 
Albanians, or Skipetars (skip'e tars) as they 
call themselves, were Christians until they were 
conquered by the Turks about 1460. Since 
that time, the great majority of them have been 
staunch believers in the Mohammedan relig- 
ion. 

Questions for Review 

(a) Where did the great Indo-European family of languages 
have its beginning? 

(6) Why is it that the Celtic languages are dying out? 

(c) What killed the Celtic languages in Spain and France? 

{d) What are the* three parts of Europe where Germanic 
languages are spoken? 

(e) In what parts of Europe are languages spoken which are 
descended from the Latin? 

(/) Explain the presence in Austria-Hungary of eleven 
different peoples? 

{g) Are the Bulgarians really a Slavic people? 



The 
division 



Chapter VI 
''THE TERRIBLE TURK" 

The Greek Empire at Constantinople. — The invading 
Mohammedans. — The Ottoman Turks. — The fall of Con- 
stantinople. — The enslaving of the Bulgars, Serbs, Greeks, 
Albanians, and Roumanians. — One little part of Serbia 
unconquered. — The further conquests of the Turks.— The 
attack on Vienna. — John Sobieski to the rescue. — The waning 
of the Turkish empire. — The Spanish Jews. — The jumble of 
languages and peoples in southeastern Eiirope. 

In the last chapter, we referred briefly to the 
Greek empire at Constantinople. This city 
of the ^yas oriainally called Byzantium, and was a 

Roman o .; ^ • i i 

Empire flourishing Greek commercial center eight hun- 
dred years before Christ. Ele\'en hundred 
years after this, a Roman emperor named 
Constantine decided that he liked Byzantium 
better than Rome. Accordingly, he moved the 
capital of the empire to the Greek city, and 
renamed it Constantinopolis (the word polis 
means ''city" in Greek). Before long, we find 
the Roman empire divided into two parts, 
the capital of one at Rome, of the other at Con- 
stantinople. This eastern government was 
continued by the Greeks nearly one thousand 
years after the government of the western 



The Map of Europe 



79 




MOHAMMED II BEFORE CONSTANTINOPLE 



empire had been seized by the invading Ger- 
manic tribes. 

For years, this Greek empire at Constanti- 
nople had been obhged to fight hard against 

the Mohammedans who came swarming across ^^^^ ^^*^^ 

° wave of 

the fertile plains of Mesopotamia (mes'o po ta'- Turks 
mi a) and Asia Minor. (Mesopotamia is the 
district lying between the Tigris (tfgris) and 



80 The Story of 

Euphrates (u fra'tez) Rivers. Its name in 
Greek means ''between the rivers.") The 
fiercest of the Mohammedan tribes, the warUke 
Ottoman Turks, were the last to arrive. For 
several years, they thundered at the gates of 
Constantinople, while the Greek Empire grew 
feebler and feebler. 

At last in 1453, their great cannon made a 
breach in the walls, and the Turks poured 
through. The Greek Empire was a thing of the 
past, and all of southeastern Europe lay at the 
mercy of the invading Moslems (another name 
for ''Mohammedans"). The Turks did not 
drive out the Greeks, Bulgarians, Serbians, and 
Albanians, but settled down among them as the 
ruling, military class. They strove to force 
these peoples to give up Christianity and turn 
Mohammedans, but were successful only in 
the case of the Skipetars of Albania. The 
Albanians, Serbians, Bulgarians, Greeks, and 
Roumanians remained where they had been, 
but were oppressed by the newcomers. 

For more than two hundred years after the 
capture of Constantinople, the Turks pushed 
their conquests farther and farther into Europe. 
The entire coast of the Black Sea fell into their 
hands. All of Greece, all of Bulgaria, and all of 
Roumania became part of their empire. Of the 
kingdom of Serbia, one small province remained 



The Map of Europe 81 

unconquered. Up in the mountains near the 

coast of the Adriatic gathered the people of one 

county of the Serbian kingdom. As the Turks 

attacked them, they retreated higher and higher q^^ ^g^^^ ^^ 

up the mountain sides and rolled huge stones Serbia 
^ ^ uncon- 

down upon the invaders. Finally, the Turks quered 
became disgusted, and concluded that ^'the 
game was not worth the candle." Thus the 
little nation of Montenegro was formed, com- 
posed of Serbians who never submitted to the 
Ottoman rule. (The inhabitants of this small 
country call it Tzernagorah (tzer na go'ra) ; 
the Italians call it Montenegro. Both of these 
names mean ''Dark Mountain.") 

Not satisfied with these conquests, the Turks 
pushed on, gaining control of the greater part of 
the kingdom of Hungary. About 1682, they 
were pounding at the forts around Vienna. The 

heroic king of Poland, John Sobieski (so bi es'ki), Pojfnd 
^ ' _ ' tothe 

came to the rescue of the Austrian emperor with rescue 
an army of Poles and Germans and completely 
defeated the Turks. He saved Vienna, and 
ended any further advance of the Turkish rule 
into Europe. (The map on page 82 shows the 
high water mark of the Turkish conquests.) 
It must be remembered that the original 
inhabitants of the conquered lands were still 
living where they always had lived. The Turks 
were very few in number compared with the 



82 



The Story of 




The Map of Europe 83 

millions of people who inhabited their empire 

and paid them tribute. Many wars were 

caused by this conquest, but it was two hundred J^®. ^^^^ 

begins to 
and thirty years before the Christian peoples ebb 

won back their territory. 

By the year 1685, the Hungarians had begun 
to win back part of their kingdom. By 1698, 
almost all of Hungary and Transylvania was 
free from Turkish rule. It will be recalled 
that a certain Count of Hapsburg had become 
Emperor of Germany, and when we say Ger- 
many, we include Austria, which had become 
the home of the Hapsburgs. It was shortly 
after this that the Hapsburg family came to be 
lords of Hungary also, through the marriage 
of one of their emperors with the only daughter 
of the king of that country. 

In this way, when the province of Bukowina 
and the territory known as the Banat, just Jr^wing 

north of the Danube and west of what is now Empire of 

the 
Roumania, were reconquered from the Turks, Hapsburgs 

it was the joint kingdom to which they were 

attached. (Bukowina has never been a part 

of Hungary. It is still a crown land, or county 

subject to the emperor of Austria personally.) 

During the 15th century, the southeastern 

part of Europe came to be inhabited by a still 

different people. Not long after Ferdinand and 

Isabella, the king and queen of Spain, had 



84 



The Stonj of 



conquered the Moorish kingdom of Granada 
(see Chapter II) that used to stretch across the 
southern half of Spain, the Spaniards decided 
to drive out of their country all '' unbelievers/' 
that is, all who were not Christians of the 
Catholic faith. (This happened in 1492, the 
same year that they sent Columbus to America.) 
The Moors retreated into Africa, which was 
their former home, but the millions of Spanish 
Jews had no homeland to which to return. In 
the midst of their distress, the Sultan of Turkey, 
knowing them to be prosperous and well- 
behaved citizens, invited them to enter his 
land. They did so by hundreds of thousands. 

The descendants of these people are to be 
found today throughout the Balkan peninsula, 
though mainly in the large cities. They are so 
numerous in Constantinople that four news- 
papers are published there in the Spanish 
language, but printed in Hebrew characters. 
The city of Salonika, a prosperous seaport of 
140,000 people, which used to belong to Turkey 
but now is part of Greece, has over 50,000 of 
these Jews. They readily learn other tongues, 
and many of them can talk in four or five lan- 
guages besides their native Spanish, which they 
still use in the family circle. 

Constantinople (called Stamboul by the 
Turks) is a polyglot city, that is, a place of many 



The Map of Europe 



85 




A SCENE IN SALONIKA 



languages. Greeks, Turks, Armenians, Jews, 
Italians are all found mingled together. 

The main source of trouble in the Balkan 
peninsula is that the races and nationalities 
are so jumbled together that it is almost 
impossible to say which land should belong to Ainbitions 
which nation. Take the case of Macedonia conflict 
(the district just northwest of the Aegean 
Sea). It is inhabited largely by Bulgarians, 
and yet there are so many Greeks and Serbs 
mixed in with the former that at the close of the 
last Balkan war in 1913, Greece and Serbia 
both claimed it as belonging to them because 
of the ''prevailing nationality of its inhabi- 
tants!" In other words, the Serbians claimed 
that the inhabitants of Macedonia were largely 



86 The Story of 

Serbs, the Greeks were positive that its people 
were largel}^ Greeks, while Bulgaria is very 
resentful today because the land was not given 
to her, on the ground that almost all its inhabi- 
tants are Bulgarians! 

Religious and racial hatreds have had a 
great deal to do with making the Balkan 
peninsula a hotbed of political trouble. Right 
in the center of Bulgaria, for example, speaking 
the same language, dressing exactly alike, doing 
business wuth each other on an equal footing, 
are to be found the nati\'e Bulgarian and the 
descendant of the Turkish conquerors; yet one 
goes to the Greek Orthodox Church to worship 
and the other to the Mohannnedan Mosque. 
With memories of hundreds of years of wrong 
and oppression behind them, Bulgarians and 
Turks hate and despise each other with a fierce 
intensity. Let us now leave the Balkan states, 
with their seething pot of racial and religious 
hatred, and turn to other causes of European 
wars. 

Questions for Review 

{a) \Miat became of the Greeks when the Turks captured 
Constantinople? 

(6) Why coukl one county of Serbia resist the Turks? 

(c) How long after the fall of Constantinople were the 
Turks threatening Vienna? 

{(I) Explain how Constantinople has people of so many 
different nationalities. 

{e) Why have the Turk and Bulgarian never been friendly? 



i 



Chapter VII 
THE RISE OF MODERN NATIONS 

How the peasants looked upon war. — War the opportunity 
of the fighting men. — The decreasing power of barons. — The 
growth- of royal power. — How four little kingdoms became 
Spain. — Other kingdoms of Europe. — The rise of Russia.— 
The Holy Roman Empire.— The electors. — The rise of 
Brandenburg. — The elector of Brandenburg becomes King 
of Prussia. — Frederick the Great. — The seizure of Silesia 
and the consequent wars. 

You have already been shown how in the early 
days of the feudal system, the lords, with their 
squires, knights, and fighting men made up a 
class of the population whose only trade was 
war, and how the poor peasants were compelled 
to raise crops and live stock enough to feed both 
themselves and the fighting men. These peas- '^^^ 
ants had no love for war, as war resulted only pay 
in their losing their possessions in case their 
country was invaded by the enemy. The 
fighting men, on the other hand, had nothing 
to do unless war was going on, and as those who 
were not killed returned from a war with rich 
plunder in case they were victorious, they were 
always looking for a chance to start trouble 
with some neighboring country. 

87 



88 Thf^^S^oryygf } \\ 

In those days, kings cared little what their 
nobles did, so long as the nobles furnished them 
with fighting men in times of war. As a result, 
one county in a certain kingdom would often 
be at war with a neighboring county. The 
fighting man either was killed in battle or he 
came out of it with increased glory and plunder, 
but the peasants and the common people 
had nothing to gain by war and everything 
to lose. As we have seen, force ruled the world, 
and the common people had no voice in their 
government. The workers were looked down 
upon by the members of the fighting class, 
who never did a stroke of work themselves and 
considered honest toil as degrading. In fact, 
as one writer has said, the only respectable trade 
in Europe in those days was what we today 
would call highway robbery. 



France and England in the 15th Century 



Gradually in most of the European countries 

Down with ^]^g kme[^ was able to put down the power of 
barons ; up ° ^ ^ 

his nobles and make himself master over the 

whole nation. In this way a strong central 

power grew up in France. After the death of 

Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, in 1477, no 

noble dared to question the leadership of the 

king of France. The same thing was true in 



The Map of Europe 89 

England after the battle of Bosworth in 1485, 
which resulted in the death of King Richard III 
and the setting of the Tudor family on the 
throne. 

Spain and Other Kingdoms 

Spain had been divided into four little 

kingdoms: Leon, Castile, Aragon, and Gra- ?P^"^ 

o ^ becomes a 

nada, the latter ruled by the Moors. The nation 

marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon to Isabella 
of Castile and Leon joined the three Christian 
kingdoms into one, and after 1492, when the 
Moors were defeated and Granada annexed to 
the realm of Ferdinand and Isabella, Spain 
became one kingdom. About this time, also, 
there had grown up a strong kingdom of Hun- 
gary, a kingdom of Portugal, a kingdom of 
Poland, and one of Denmark. Norway was 
ruled by the Danes, but Sweden was a separate 

kingdom. In Russia, Czar Ivan the Terrible ^^ . 

The rise 
(1533-84) had built up a strong power which was of Russia 

still further strengthened by Czar Peter the 

Great (1690-1725). 

The Holy Roman Empire 

The rest of the continent of Europe, with the 
exception of the Turkish Empire, formed what ^^^le Holy 
was called the Holy Roman Empire, a rule Ro^^p ^ 

*^ r- ' Empire of 

which had been founded by Charlemagne Germany 



90 



The Story of 




The Map of Europe 91 

(a.d. 800), the great Frankish monarch, who 
had been crowned in Rome by the pope as 
ruler of the western world. (The name '^Holy 
Roman Empire" was not used by Charlemagne. 
We first hear of it under Otto I, the Saxon 
emperor, who was crowned in 962.) 

This Holy Roman Empire included all of ^ 

. ^ Extent of 

what IS now Germany (except the eastern the empire 
third of Prussia), all of what is now Bohemia, 
Austria (but not Hungary), and all of Italy 
except the part south of Naples. There were 
times when part of France and all of the low 
countries (now Belgium and Holland) also 
belonged to the Empire. (The mountain- 
eers of Switzerland won their independence from 
the Empire in the fourteenth century, and 
formed a little republic.) See map ''Europe 
in 1540." 

In the Holy Roman Empire, the son of the 

emperor did not necessarily succeed his father as ^^ 

The 
ruler. There were seven (afterwards nine) electors 

''electors" who, at the death of the ruling mon- 
arch, met to elect his successor. Three of these 
electors were archbishops, one was king of 
Bohemia, and the others were counts of large 
counties in Germany hke Hanover and Branden- 
burg. It frequently happened that the candi- 
date chosen was a member of the family of the 
dead emperor, and there were three or four 



92 



The Story of 




LOUIS XIV 



A weak 
state 



families which had many rulers chosen from 
among their number. The most famous of 
these families was that of the Counts of Haps- 
burg, from whom the present emperor of Aus- 
tria is descended. 

This Holy Roman Empire was not a strong 
government, as the kingdoms of England and 
France grew to be. The kings of Bohemia, 




Sb 



19 






r^' 



c^-^-- . ■' 




Boundaries of the Hoiy 

Roman Empire ^^mm^^ 
Lands of the Hapsburg 
Family in Red 

1. Spain 

2. Kingdom of Sardinia 

3. Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 

4. The Netherlands 

5. The Free County of Burgundy 

6. Bohemia 

7. Austria 

8. Silesia 

9. Part of Hungary never 
conquered by the Turks 

10. The Duchy of Milan 

11. The Kingdom of France 

12. The Kingdom of England 

13. The Kingdom of Scotland 

14. The Kingdom of Denmark 

15. The Kingdom of Norway 

16. The Kingdom of Sweden. 

17. The Grand-Duchy of Finland 

(Controlled by Sweden) 

18. Lands of the German Knights 
of Livonia 

19. Russia 

20. The Kingdom of Poland 
and Lithuania 

21. Empire of the Ottoman Turks 

22. Montenegro 

23. Republic of Venice 

24. Lands of Genoa 

25. States of the Church 

26. Little German States 

27. Switzerland 

28. Portugal 



The Map of Europe 



93 



Saxony, and Bavaria all were subjects of the 
emperor, as were many powerful counts. 
These men were jealous of the emperor's power, 
and he did not dare govern them as strictly as 
the king of France ruled his nobles. 



France in the 18th Century 
During the 18th century, there were many 



France 



wars in Europe caused by the ambition of var- ^^^^j. 

ious kings to make q^^®^ 
their domains larger Monarch" 
and to increase their 
own incomes. King 
Louis XIV of France 
had built up a very 
powerful kingdom. 
Brave soldiers and 
skillful generals 
spread his rule over 
a great part of what 
is Belgium and Lux- 
emburg, and an- 
nexed to the French 
kingdom the part of Germany between the 
Rhine River and the Vosges (Vozh) Mountains. 
Finally, the English joined with the troops of 
the Holy Roman Empire to curb the further 
growth of the French kingdom, and at the battle 
of Blenheim (1704), the Enghsh Duke of Marl- 




JOHN CHURCHILL, DUKE OF 
MARLBOROUGH 



94 



The Story of 




^4^^.,fil 




THE GREAT ELECTOR OF BRANDENBURG 



The Map of Europe 95 

borough, aided by the emperor's army, put an 
end to the further expansion of the French. 

Prussia 

The 18th century also saw the rise of a new 

kingdom in Europe. You will recall that there 

was a county in Germany named Brandenburg, 

whose count was one of the seven electors who 

chose the emperor. The capital of this county Hohen- 

was Berlin. It so happened that a number of zollernsof 
^ Branden- 

Counts of Brandenburg, of the family of burg 

Hohenzollern, had been men of ambition and 

ability. The little county had grown by adding 

small territories around it, as shown on the map 

on page 99. One of these counts, called ''the 

Great Elector," had added to Brandenburg 

the greater part of the neighboring county of 

Pomerania. His son did not have the ability 

of his father, but was a very proud and vain 

man. He happened to visit King William III ^^ 

of England, and was very much offended interview 

because during the interview, the king occupied results 

a comfortable arm chair, while the elector, 

being simply a count, was given a chair to sit 

in which was straight-backed and had no arms. 

Brooding over this insult, as it seemed to him, 

he went home and decided that he too should 

be called a king. The question was, what 

should his title be. He could not call himself 



96 



The Story of 




FREDERICK TUE GREAT 



''King of Brandenburg," for Brandenburg was 
part of the Empire, and the emperor would 
not allow it. It had happened some one hun- 
dred years before, that, through his marriage 



The Map of Europe 97 

with the daughter of the Duke of Prussia, a 
Count of Brandenburg had come into possession 
of the district known as East Prussia, at the 
extreme southeastern corner of the Baltic Sea. 
Between this and the territory of Brandenburg 
lay the district known as West Prussia, which 
was part of the Kingdom of Poland, However, 
Prussia lay outside the boundaries of the Empire, 
and the emperor had nothing to say about what 
went on there. Therefore, the elector sent . 

nil- -^ ^®^ 

notice to all the kmgs and princes of Europe kingdom 
that after this he was to be known as the 
''King of Prussia." It was a situation some- 
what like the one we have already referred to, 
when the kings of England were independent 
monarchs and yet subjects of the kings of 
France because they were also dukes of 
Normandy. 

The son of this elector who first called himself 
king had more energy and more character than 
his father. He ruled his country with a rod of 
iron, and built up a strong, well-drilled army. 
He was especially fond of tall soldiers, and had 
agents out all over Europe, kidnapping men who 
were over six feet tall to serve in his famous 
regiment of Guards. He further increased the 
size of the Prussian kingdom. ^j^^ ^^^^_ 

His son was the famous Frederick the Great, lL^<?wn 

' Hohen- 
one ot the most remarkable fighters that* the zoiiern 



98 The Story of 

world has ever seen. This prince had been 
brought up under strict disciphne by his father. 
The old king had been insistent that his son 
should be no weakling. It is told that one day, 
finding Frederick playing upon a flute, he seized 
the instrument and snapped it in twain over 
his son's shoulder. The 3"oung Frederick, under 
this harsh training, became a fit leader of a 
military nation. When his father died and 
left him a well-filled treasury and a w^onder- 
fully drilled army, he was fired with the am- 
bition to spread his kingdom wider. Germany, 
as has been said, was made up of a great man}^ 
little counties, each ruled by its petty prince 
or duke, all owing homage, in a general way, 
to the ruler of Austria, who still was supposed 
to be the head of the Holy Roman Empire. 
This empire was not a real nation, but a col- 
lection of many different nationalities which had 
little sympathy with each other. The ruler of 
Austria was also king of Bohemia and of 
Hungary, but neither country was happy at 
being governed by a German ruler. Then, too, 
the Croatians, Serbs, Slovenes, and Slovaks 
were unhappy at being ruled, first by the 
Hungarians and then by the emperor, as they 
were Slavic peoples who wished their indepen- 
dence. It so happened that about the time that 
Frederick became king of Prussia in place of his 



The Map of Europe 



99 




100 The Story of 

father, the head of the House of Austria died, 
leaving his only child, a daughter, Maria 
Theresa, to rule the big empire. Frederick 
decided that he could easily defeat the dis- 
organized armies of Austria, so he announced 
to the world that the rich province of Silesia 
was henceforth to be his and that he proposed 
to take it by force of arms. Naturally, this 
brought on a fierce war with Austria, but in the 
end, Frederick's well-trained troops, his store 
of money, and above all, his expert military 
ability made the Prussians victorious, and at 
the close of the fighting, almost all of Silesia 
remained a part of the kingdom of Prussia. 
The Austrians, however, were not satisfied, 
and two more wars were fought before they 
finally gave up trying to recover the stolen 
state. Frederick remained stronger than ever 
as a result of his victories. 

Questions for Review 

(a) Why were the fighting men of the Middle Ages a source 
of loss to a nation in general? 

(6) How was it that Spain became one nation? 

(c) What did Peter the Great do for Russia? 

{d) Why did the Emperor have less power than many kings? 

(e) What was the ambition of Louis XIV of France? 

C/) What effect had the training of his father upon the 
character of Frederick the Great? 

{g) Had Frederick the Great any right to Silesia? 



Chapter VIII 
THE FALL OF TWO KINGDOMS 

The Poles, a divided nation. — The three partitions. — 
Wars and revolts as a result. — The disappearance of Lith- 
uania. — The growing power of the king of France. — An 
extravagant and corrupt court. — Peasants cruelly taxed and 
oppressed. — Bankruptcy at last. — The meeting of the three 
estates. — The third estate defies the king.— The fall of the 
Bastille. — The flight and capture of the king. — The king 
beheaded. — Other kings alarmed. — Valmy saves the revo- 
lution. — The reign of terror. 

In the flat country to the northeast of 

Austria-Hungary and east of Prussia lay the The Poles 

kingdom of Poland, the largest country in 

Europe with the exception of Russia. The 

Poles, as has been said before, were a Slavic 

people, distant cousins of the Russians and 

Bohemians. They had a strong nobility or 

upper class, but these nobles were jealous of each 

other, and as a result, the country was torn 

apart by many warring factions. The condition 

of the working class was very miserable. The ^. ., , 
° *^ , ^ Divided 

nobles did not allow them any privileges, we fall 
They were serfs, that is to say, practically 
slaves, who had to give up to their masters the 
greater part of the crops that they raised. In 
the council of the Polish nobles, no law could be 

101 



102 The Story of 

passed if a single nobleman opposed it. As a 
result of this jealousy between factions, the 
Poles could not be induced to obey any one 
leader, and thus, divided, were easy to conquer. 
Frederick the Great, regretting the fact that 
^ , . , , he was separated from his land in East Prussia 

Frederick's 

proposal by the county of West Prussia, which was part 
of Poland, proposed to his old enemy, Maria 
Theresa of Austria, and to the Empress Cathar- 
ine II of Russia that they each take a slice of 
Poland. This was accordingly done, in the 
year 1772. Poor Poland was unable to resist 
the three great powers around her, and the other 
kings of Europe, who had been greedily annex- 
ing land wherever they could get it, stood by 
without a protest. Some twenty years later, 
Prussia and Russia each again annexed a large 
part of the remainder of Poland, and two years 
after this, the three powers divided up among 

crime them all that was left of the unhappy kingdom. 

The Poles fought violently against this last 
partition, but they were not united and were 
greatly outnumbered by the troops of the three 
powers. 

This great crime against a nation was the 
result of the military system; and this in turn 
was the result of the feudal systeih, which made 
the king, as commander-in-chief of the army, 
the supreme ruler of his country. The men in 



i \ 



The Map of Europe 



103 



■ 


p 




■ 


E 




jl 


H 


^H 


ij^j^ 


^L^-'f^' 'fl 


^^1 


P 


m^ 


■1 


M 


^ 


"^ 


H 


Hj 




-^ 


■ 


J^ 




A- 




^1 



CATHARINE II 



Victory ^^1®^^, not 
^ people, 



the Prussian and Austrian armies had no desire 

to fight and conquer the poor Poles. 

meant nothing to them. They gained no ad- to blame 

vantage from it. To the kings who divided up 

the countries it simply meant an enlargement of 



104 The Story of 

their kingdoms, more people to pay taxes 

to them, and more men to draw on for their 

armies. 

Instead of crushing out the love of the Poles 

The result: fgj. their country, this wrongful tearing apart 

Bloodshed 

and misery has made their national spirit all the stronger. 

There have been revolts and bloody wars, 
caused by Polish uprisings, time and time again, 
and the Poles will never be satisfied until their 
unhappy country is once more united. 

To the northeast of the Poles Uve the Lithu- 
anians, whose country had been annexed to 
the Polish kingdom when their duke, who had 
married the daughter of the king of Poland, 
followed his father-in-law on the Polish throne. 
Lithuania fell to Russia's share in the division, 
so that its people only changed masters. They 
are a distinct nation, however, possessing a 
nation^^ language and hterature of their own, and 

disappears havine; no desire to be ruled by either Poles or 
from the • • >- 

map Russians. If they were to receive justice, 

they would form a country by themselves, 

lying between Poland and Russia proper. 

The Downfall of the French Monarchy 

In the meantime, a great change had come 

about in France. There, for hundreds of years, 

, the power of the king had been growing greater. 
The kmg's ^ 

will is law until by the eighteenth century, there was no 



The Map of Europe 



105 



one in the country who could oppose him. 
He had great fortresses and prisons where he 
sent those who had offended him, shutting 
them up without a trial and not even letting 

their families know 
where they had been 
taken. The peasants 
and working classes 
had been ground down 
under taxes which grew 
heavier and heavier. 
The king spent mil- 
lions of dollars on his 
palaces, on his armies, 

on his courts. Money ,„ ^ 

'^ Waste and 

was stolen by court misery 
officials. Paris was the 
gayest capital in the 
world, the home of 
fashion, art, and fri- 
volity — and the poor 
peasants paid the bills. 
For years, there had 
been mutterings. The people were ripe for 
a revolt, but they had no weapons, and there 
was no one to lead them. At last, came a time 
when there was no money in the royal treasury. 
After all the waste and corruption, nothing was 
left to pay the army and keep up the expenses 




COURTIER OF TIME OF 
LOUIS XIV 



106 



The Story of 




THE TAKING OF THE BASTILLE 



A bankrupt 
nation 



At last — 
a leader of 
the people 



of the government. One minister of finance 
after another tried to devise some scheme 
whereby the country might meet its debts, but 
without success. The costly wars and wasteful 
extravagances of the past hundred years were 
at last to bring a reckoning. In desperation, 
the king summoned a meeting of representa- 
tive men from all over the kingdom. There 
were three classes represented, the nobles, the 
clergy, and what was called ''the third estate," 
which meant merchants, shopkeepers, and the 
poor gentlemen. A great statesman appeared, a 
man named Mirabeau. Under his leadership, 
the third estate defied the king, and the temper 



The Map of Europe 



107 



of the people was such that the king dared not 

force them to do his will. In the midst of these ^, , „ , 

The fall of 

exciting times, a mob attacked the great Paris the Bastille 
prison, the Bastille. They took it by storm, and 
tore it to the ground. This happened on the 
fourteenth of July, 1789, a day which the French 
still celebrate as the birthday of their nation's 




THE PALACE OF VERSAILLES 



liberty. All over France the common people ^, 

^ ^ The signal 

rose in revolt. The soldiers in the army would for revolt 
no longer obey their officers. The king was 
closely watched, and when he attempted to 
flee to Germany was brought back and thrown 
into prison. Many of the nobles, in terror, 
fled from the country. Thus began what is 
known as the French Revolution. 

As soon as the king was thrown into prison 
and the people of France took charge of their 
government, a panic arose throughout the 
courts of Europe. Other kings, alarmed over 



108 The Story of 

the fate of the king of France, began to fear 
for themselves. They, too, had taxed and 
oppressed their subjects. They felt that this 
revolt of the French people must be put down, 
and the king of France set back upon his 
throne, otherwise the same kind of revolt might 
Kings must ^^^^ place in their countries as well. Accord- 
unite in ingly, the king of Prussia, the king of England, 
defense and the emperor of Austria all made war on the 
new French Republic. They proposed to 
overwhelm the French by force of arms and 
compel them to put back their king upon his 
throne. 

Of course, if the soldiers in the armies of these 

Ignorance kings had known what the object of this war 
the servant ^ 

of tyranny was, they would have had very little sympathy 
with it, but for years they had been trained 
to obey their officers, who in turn obeyed 
their generals, who in turn obeyed the orders of 
the kings. The common soldiers were like sheep, 
in that they did not think for themselves, but 
followed their leaders. They were not allowed 
to know the truth concerning this attack on 
France. They did not know the French lan- 
guage, and had no way of finding out the real 
situation, for there were no pubhc schools in 
these countries, and very few people knew how 

to read the newspapers. The newspapers, 
A snacKieQ 
press moreover, were controlled by the governments. 



The Map of Europe 



109 



and were allowed to print only what favored 
the cause of the kings. 

The French, however, knew the meaning of 
the war. A young French poet from Strasbourg 
on the Rhine wrote a wonderful war song 
which was first sung in Paris by the men of 
Marseilles, and thus has come to be called 
''La Marseillaise." It is the cry of a crushed 




THE REIGN OF TERROR 

and oppressed people against foreign tyrants , 

1 1 1 • 1 1 "■ People 

who would agam enslave them. It fired the at bay 

French army with a wonderful enthusiasm, and 

untrained as they were, they beat back the 

invaders at the hard-fought field of Valmy and 

saved the French Repubhc. 

The period known as ''the reign of terror' ' 

now began in earnest. A faction of the extreme 




(110) 



m 



The Map of Europe HI 

republican party got control of the government, 

and kept it by terrorizing the more peaceable 

citizens. The brutal wrongs which nobles had 

put upon the lower classes for so many hundred 

years were brutally avenged. The king was 

executed, as were most of the nobles who had Wrongs are 
' washed out 

not fled from the country. For three or four by blood 

years, the gutters of the principal French cities 
ran blood. Then the better sense of the nation 
came to the front and the people settled down. 
A fairly good government was organized, and 
the executions ceased. Still the kings of 
Europe would not recognize the new republic. 
There was war against France for the next 
twenty years on the part of England, and gen- 
erally two or three other countries as well. 

Questions for Review 

(a) Why was Poland an easy prey for her neighbors? 

ih) Why did not Spain, France, or England interfere to 
prevent the partition of Poland? 

(c) How did Lithuania come to be joined to Poland? 

{d) What things could the king of France do which would 
not be tolerated in the United States today? 

(e) Why did the people of France submit to the rule of 
the king? 

(/) Why did the king call together the three "estates"? 

{g) Why do the French celebrate the 14th of July? 

Qi) Why did the other kings take up the cause of the king 
of France? 

{i) What was the cause of the reign of terror? 



Chapter IX 

THE LITTLE MAN FROM 
THE COMMON PEOPLE 

The young Corsican, — The war in Italy. — Italy a battle- 
field for centuries. — The victories of Bonaparte. — The first 
consul. — The empire. — The French sweep over Europe. — 
Kings and emperors beaten and deposed. — The fatal Russian 
campaign. — The fu-st abdication. — The return from Elba. — 
The battle of Waterloo. — The feudal lords once more tri- 
umphant. 

And now there came to the front one of the 
most remarkable characters in all history. 
This was Napoleon Bonaparte, a little man from 
the island of Corsica, of Italian parentage, but 
a French citizen, for the island had been forcibly 
annexed to France shortly before his birth. 
As a young lieutenant in the army, he had seen 
the storming of the Bastille. Later on, being 
in charge of the cannon which defended the 
House of Parliament, he had saved one of 
the numerous governments set up during this 
period. A Paris mob was trying to storm this 
building, as they had the castle of the king. 
As a reward, he had been put in charge of 
the French army in Italy, which was engaged 
in fighting the Austrians. 

112 



The Map of Europe 113 

In order to understand the situation it is 
necessity at this point to devote some attention 
to the past history of the ItaUan peninsula. 

Italy had not been a united country since the 
days of the Roman Empire. The southern 
part of the peninsula had formed, with Sicily, Italy 
a small nation called the Kingdom of the Two 
Sicilies. The northern part had belonged to 
the Ostrogoths, the Lombards, the Franks, 
and the Holy Roman Empire in turn. The 
Itahan people wanted to become one nation, 
but they were divided up among many little 
princes, each with his separate dominions. 
The cities of Genoa and Venice had each formed 
a republic, which was strong on the sea only, 
for both cities had large navies and had acquired 
practically all their wealth by their trade with 
Constantinople, Egypt, and the far East. In 
1796 the Hapsburg family held the control of The 
northern Italy except the lands around the city in Italy 
of Venice and the county of Piedmont. The 
latter formed a separate kingdom with the 
island of Sardinia, much as Sicily was joined 
with the southern end of the peninsula. 

Italy had been the battlefield where Goths, 
Franks, Huns, Lombards, Germans, Austrians, 
French, and Spaniards had fought their battles 
for the control of the civilized world. (See 
the following maps.) At one time, the Austrian 



114 



The Story of 




k\ 



The Map of Europe 115 




ITALY IN 650 A.D. 



1 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII Lands of the Lombards 

2 | I Lands of ttie Eastern Empire (Tfie Greeit Empire at Constantinople) 

"^ XZ/yA Country of tfie Serbs and Croats 
"^YILlZH Country of the Avars 
Kingdom of the Franl<s 



The Story of 






ITALY IN 1175 



1 I I Lands of the Holy Roman Empire 

2 R^^^^ States of tfie Cfiurcli 

3 lllllllllllllllllllll Lands of tfie Republic of Venice 

4 I IN Ml) Tfie Kingdom of Hungary 

5 W//////A Tfie Kmgdom of Sicily 

6 ^^^^ Lands of tfie Moors and Saracens 



The Map of Europe 



117 




CHARLES THE FIFTH 



House of Hapsburg controlled the greater part 
of the peninsula. This was especially true 
when Charles V was elected emperor of the 
Holy Roman Empire. As a Hapsburg, he was 
ruler of Austria. As a descendant of Charles 
the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, he was Lord of 
the Low Countries (what is now Holland and 



118 



The Story of 



Austrians 
vs. French 



Enter 

Napoleon 

Bonaparte 



Belgium). He was also king of Spain, being 
the oldest living grandson of Ferdinand and 
Isabella. When he became ruler of the two 
Sicilies, and defeated the French king for the 
control of northern Italy, there were only four 
powers in Europe which were not under his 
sway: Russia, Turkey, Poland, and England. 
(See map following page 91.) 

Three hundred years after this, the Austrians 
were again invading Italy, and at the time when 
Bonaparte entered it (1796), they had overrun 
and controlled the entire valley of the Po. The 
cause of the war was still the deposing of the 
French monarch. The Austrian armies were 
fighting to force the people of France to take 
back the rule of the hated kings. The armies 
of France, on the other hand, represented the 
rights of the people to choose their own form 
of government. 

Of course the French, intoxicated by the 
success of the Revolution, were eager to spread 
the republican form of government all over 
Europe. There was a real possibility that they 
might do so, and the kings were fighting in 
defense of their thrones. (The map shows the 
conquests of the new repubhc up to this time.) 

Such was the situation when young Bona- 
parte, twenty-six years of age, went down into 
Italy to take command of the French army. 




EUROPE IN 1796 

Just after the French Revolution 
and the Division of Poland 




^ 



•^ 



lO 





1. 


Kingdom ot Sardinia 


2. 


Republic of Switzerland 


3. 


Kingdom of Bavaria 


4. 


Kingdom of Wurtemburg 


5. 


Little German States 


6. 


Batavian Republic 


7. 


Kingdom of Denmark 




and Norway 


8. 


Kingdom of Great Britain 


9. 


Kingdom of Sweden 


10. 


Empire of Russia 


11. 


Kingdom of Prussia 


12. 


Lands of the Hapsburgs 




(Austria-Hungary) 


13. 


Turkish Empire 


14. 


Montenegro 


15. 


Republic of Venice 


16. 


Tuscany 


17. 


States of the Church 


18. 


Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 


19. 


Kingdom of Spain 


20. 


Kingdom of Portugal 


21 


Republic of France 


22. 


Republic of Genoa 


23 


Hanover 


24. 


Saxony 



The Map of Europe 119 

The generals, many of them as old as his father, 
began offering him advice, but he impatiently 
waved them aside and announced that he was 
going to wage war on a plan hitherto unheard of. 
He made good his boast, and after a short 
campaign in which he inspired his ragged, hungry ^ ^.^.^ 
army to perform wonders in fighting, he had genius 
driven the Austrians out of northern Italy, broken 
up theRepubUc of Venice, and forced the emperor 
to make peace with France. After a brilliant 
but unsuccessful campaign in Egypt and Syria, 
Bonaparte returned to France, where, as the 
popular military hero, he had little difficulty 
in overthrowing the five Directors of the French 
government and having himself elected '^ First 
Consul" or president of France. 

A new combination of nations now united 
against the republic, but Bonaparte cut to 
pieces a great Austrian army, and a second time ^ ^"^^•J 
compelled his enemies to make peace. He now his people 
proposed that the French people elect him 
''emperor of the French" for life, and by an 
overwhelming vote they did so. The empire 
was very different from the other empires and 
kingships of Europe, since it was created by the 
vote of the people. The other monarchs held 
their thrones by reason of their descent from the 
chiefs of the plundering tribes which invaded 
Europe during the Dark Ages. By this time. 



120 



The Story of 



Kings 
claim 
divine 
authority 



The 

awakening 
of the 
peasants 



the kings had forgotten that they owed their 
power to the swords of their fighting men, and 
there had grown up a doctrine called '^The 
Divine Right of Kings." In other words, the 
kings claimed that God in his wisdom had seen 
fit to make them rulers over these lands, and 
that they were responsible to God alone. In 
this way they tried to make it appear that any 
one who attempted to drive a king from his 
throne was opposed to the will of Heaven. 

The victorious French, exulting in their 
newly-won freedom from the tyranny of kings 
and nobles, were full of warlike pride in the won- 
derful victories gained by their armies under the 
brilliant leadership of Napoleon. (He dropped 
his last name, Bonaparte, when he was elected 
emperor.) They swept over the greater part 
of Europe and helped to spread the idea that 
the people had rights that all kings were bound 
to respect, and that it was not necessary to be 
ruled by descendants of the old robber chiefs. 

For sixteen years Napoleon did not meet 
defeat. He beat the Austrians and Russians 
singly; he beat them combined. In two fierce 
battles, he crushed the wonderful Prussian 
army, which had been trained in the military 
school of Frederick the Great. He drove 
out the king of Spain, the king of the Two 
Sicilies, the kings of several of the small German 




EUROPE !N 1810 

Napoleon at the Height of hb Power 




13 





CONTROLLED BY FRANCE 


1. 


The Empire of France 


2. 


Little German States composing 




the Confederation of the Rhine 


3. 


Kingdom of Westphalia 


4. 


Kingdom of Italy 


5. 


Kingdom of Naples 


6. 


Grand Duchy of Warsaw 


7. 


Kingdom of Spain 


3. 


Republic of Switzerland 




ALLIED WITH FRANCE 

9. Empire of Austria 

10. Kingdom of Prussia 

11. Kingdom of Sweden 

12. Kingdom of Oenmari< 
and Norway 

INDEPENDENT OF FRANCE 

13. Empire of Russia 
14 Turkish Empire 

5. Montenegro 

16. Kingdom of Sicily 

17. Kingdom of Sardinia 

18. Kingdom of Portugal 

19. Kingdom of Great Britain 



The Map of Europe 121 

kingdoms. He made one of his brothers 

king of Spain, another king of Holland, a 

third king of Westphalia (part of western 

Germany). He set his brother-in-law on the 

throne of Naples. He had his small son 

crowned king of Rome. He took away from 

Prussia all of her territory except Brandenburg, corsican 

Silesia, Pomerania, and East and West Prussia, "^akes and 

' ' unmakes 

He reorganized the old PoHsh kingdom and kings 

called it the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. He 

forced Austria to give up all claim to northern 

Italy. He annexed to France the land which is 

now Belgium and Holland, and parts of western 

Germany and Italy. (See map entitled 

'^Europe in 1810.") 

All over Europe, those of the people who had 

education enough to understand what was 

going on, were astonished to see the old feudal 

kings and princes driven from their thrones 

and their places taken by men sprung from the 

common people. The father of the Bonapartes 

had been a poor lawyer. Murat, Napoleon's 

brother-in-law, king of the Two Sicilies, was 

the son of an innkeeper. Bernadotte, one of Ryigj-s 

Napoleon's generals, whom the Swedes chose ^^^^ *^® 
^ . . common 

as their king, was likewise descended from the people 

lower classes. In nations where the working 

classes had never dreamed of opposing the 

rulers there sprang up a new hope. 




THE EMPEROR NAPOLEON IN 1814 



(122) ) 



The Map of Europe 123 

Bonaparte at last made a fatal mistake, jj^g^^^^j 
With an army of half a million men, he invaded blunder 
Russia, and established his headquarters in 
Moscow. The Russian people, however, set fire 
themselves to their beautiful city, and the 
French had to retreat a thousand miles throus^h J^^., , 

° terrible 

snow and ice, while bands of Russian Cossacks retreat 
swooped down on them from the rear and took a 
hundred thousand prisoners. Encouraged by 
this terrible blow dealt the French, the allied 
kings of Europe again united in one last effort 
to drive the little Corsican from the throne of 
France. 

For two years Napoleon held them at bay, 
making up for his lack of soldiers by his marvel- 
ous military skill, and by the enthusiasm which 
he never failed to arouse in his troops. In 1814, 
however, surrounded by the troops of Austria, 
Prussia, Russia, and England, he had to confess by numbers 
himself beaten. Even Bernadotte, his former 
general, led the Swedish troops against him. 
The allied kings brought back in triumph to 
Paris the brother of the king who had been 
murdered there twenty-two years before, and 
set him on the throne of France. Napoleon was 
banished to the little island of Elba to the west 
of Italy, and the monarchs flattered themselves 
that their troubles were ended. 

In the spring of the following year, however, 




(124) 



The Map of Europe 125 

Napoleon escaped from his island prison and 

landed on the southern coast of France. The 

king ordered his soldiers to capture their 

former emperor. But the magic of his presence 

was too much for them, and the men who had r^^ie people 

been sent to put him into chains shed tears of ^^^^^^^ 

joy at the sight of him, and threw themselves time 

at his feet. One week later, the king of France 

had fled a second time from his country, and 

the man chosen by the people was once more at 

the head of the government. 

All the kingdoms of Europe declared war 
against France, and four large armies were 
headed toward her borders. Napoleon did not 
wait for them to come. Gathering a big force, 
he marched rapidly north into the low countries, 
where he met and defeated an army of Prus- 
sians. Another army of English was advancing 
from Brussels. On the field of Waterloo, the 
French were defeated in one of the great 
battles of the world's history. The defeated 
Prussians had made a wide circuit and returned 
to the field to the aid of their English allies, 
while the general whom Napoleon had sent to 
follow the Germans arrived too late to prevent 
the emperor from being crushed. A second 
time. Napoleon had to give up his crown, and 
a second time King Louis XVIII was brought 
back into Paris and put upon the French 



126 



The Stonj of 



■' " ■ -■^% 

1 

i 




^JIhhBhV 


Hj 


jTiiiiii iiii, 








1^^^ 


HHB^ 


"-■V ■ 


m 


*^^i-Ejl» 


%^^ri^ 


«... -.. 


^^^#:^ 




^w^ 




i 




■1W« !■ Jl 









NArOLEON AT WATERLOO 



throne by the bayonets of foreign troops. 

Feudalism j j c5 r- 

triumphant The people had been crushed, apparently, 

and the old feudal lords were once more in 

control. 

Questions for Review 

(a) Had Italy ever been a nation? 

(6) What German tribe ruled Italy in 525? (See map.) 

(c) What tribe ruled Italy in 650? (See map.) 

(d) What part of Italy once belonged to the Holy Roman 
Empire? (See map.) 

(e) What induced the French to elect Bonaparte as First 
Consul and afterward Emperor? 

(/) What led Napoleon to make war on the other rulers? 
(g) What was Napoleon's great mistake? 
(h) Why did the people welcome him upon his return 
from Elba? 

(i) What was the effect of the battle of Waterloo? 



Chapter X 

A KING-MADE MAP AND ITS 
TRAIL OF WRONGS 

A meeting of kings and diplomats. — Austrians and English 
vs. Prussians and Russians. — Talleyrand the subtle. — 
Carving a new map. — The people are ignored. — Sowing the 
seeds of trouble.^ Unhappy Poland.— Divided Italy. — 
Revolts of the people. — The outbreaks of 1848. 

And now the kings and princes, with their 

ministers of state and diplomats, met at Vienna 

to decide what should be the map of Europe. 

In past years, there had been a great deal of 

suspicion and jealousy among these monarchs. 

Hardly five years had gone by without finding 

two of them flying at each other's throats in 

some unjust war or other. Only their great fear 

of uprisings similar to the French Revolution 

had driven them to act together in crushing the 

French RepubHc, and the empire voted by the 

people, which had followed it. This famous J^^ 

Congress 
''Congress of Vienna," which took place in of Vienna 

1815, is a fair example of the way in which 

European lands have been cut up and parceled 

out to various monarchs without any regard 

for the wishes of the people. 

127 



128 



The Story of 




The Map of Europe 129 

Russia and Prussia, proud of the part that 
their migfity armies had had in crushing Napo- 
leon, were arrogantly intending to divide the 
map of Europe as suited them, and it was only 
by a great deal of diplomacy that they were 
beaten. (The game of diplomacy is frequently 
a polite name for some very cunning deception, at work 
involving lying and cheating, in which kings and 
their ministers take part.) The Austrians were 
afraid of the Russian-Prussian combination, 
and they induced England to side with them. 
England did not love Austria, but feared 
the other two powers. The Enghsh minister, 
Lord Castlereagh, finally persuaded the Aus- 
trians, Prussians, and Russians, to allow the 
French diplomat, Talleyrand, to take part in 
their final meetings. Now Talleyrand was 

probably the most slippery and tricky diplomat ^^^ 

master 

of all Europe. He had grown to power during diplomat 
the troublous days of the latter part of the 
French Revolution, and had guessed which 
party would remain in power so skillfully that he 
always appeared as the strong friend of the win- 
ning side. Although he had served Napoleon 
during the first years of the empire, he was 
shrewd enough to remain true to King Louis 
XVIII during the latter's second exile. The 
Prussian-Russian combination was finally 
obliged to give in, somewhat, to the demands of 



The 

division of 
the spoils 



Trading 
in nations 



130 The Story of 

Austria, England, and France. Compare this 
map with the one given in the preceding chap- 
ter, and you will see most of the important 
changes. 

Prussia, which had been cut down to about 
half its former size by Napoleon, got back some 
of its Polish territory, and was given a great deal 
of land in western Germany along the River 
Rhine. Part of the kingdom of Saxony was 
forcibly annexed to Prussia also. It is needless 
to say that its inhabitants were bitterly 
unhappy over this arrangement. Austria kept 
part of her Polish territory, and gave the rest 
of it to Russia. 

The southern part of the Netherlands, which 
is today called Belgium, had belonged to the 
Hapsburg family, the emperors of Austria. As 
was previously said, it was conquered by the 
French and remained part of France until the 
fall of Napoleon. It was now joined with Hol- 
land to make the kingdom of the Netherlands. 
Its people were Walloons and Flemish, almost 
entirely Catholic in their religion, and they 
very much disliked to be joined with the Protes- 
tant Dutch of Holland. 

The state of Finland, which had not been 
strong enough to defend itself against its 
two powerful neighbors, Sweden and Russia, 
had been fought over by these two powers for 




EUROPE IN 1815 

After the Congress of Vienna 




o 



12 




1. Kingdom of Spain 

2. Kingdom of Portugal 

3. Kingdom of France 

4. Kingdom of Sardinia 

5. Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 

6. States of the Church 

7. Tuscany 

8. Republic of Switzerland 

9. Empire cf Austria 

10. Montenegro 

11. Turkish Empire 

12. Empire of Russia 

13. Kingdom of Sweden 
and Norway 

14. Kingdom of Prussia 

15. Republic of Cracow 

16. Little German States, with 
Austria and Prussia, composing 
the German Confederation 

17. Kingdom of the Netherlands 

18. Kingdom of Denmark 

19. Kingdom of Great Britafn 
and Ireland 

20. Parma 

21. Modena 

22. Republic of San Marino 



The Map of Europe 131 

more than a century. It was finally transferred 
to Russia, and in order to appease Sweden, Nor- 
way, which had been ruled by the Danes, was 
torn away from Denmark and made part of the 

kingdom of Sweden. The Norwegians desired Another 

° source of 

to remain an independent country, and they trouble 

loved the Swedes even less than they loved the 

Danes. Therefore, this union was another 

source of trouble. The greater part of the 

kingdom of Poland and all of Lithuania were 

joined to Russia. 

Russia got back all of the territory she had 
taken in 1795, and in addition large parts of the 
former shares of Prussia and Austria. In order to 
pay back Austria for the loss of part of Poland, 
she was given all of northern Italy except the 
counties of Piedmont and Savoy near France. 

The German states (and these included both 

Austria and Prussia) were formed into a loose 

alliance called the German Confederation. 

England's share of the plunder consisted largely 

of distant colonies, such as South Africa, 

Ceylon, Trinidad, etc. France shrank back 

to the boundaries which she had had at the 

beginning of the revolution. The kings of 

France, of the Two Sicilies, and of Spain (all of ^^ 

' ^ ^ The return 

them members of the Bourbon family) who had of tyrants 
been driven out by Napoleon, were set back 
upon their thrones. 



132 The Story of 

This arrangement left Italy all split up into 
nine or ten different parts, although its people 
desired to be one nation. It left Austria a 
government over twelve different nationalities, 
each one of which was dissatisfied. It joined 
Belgium to Holland in a combination dis- 
pleasing to both. It gave Norway and Finland 
as subject states to Sweden and Russia respec- 
tively. It left the Albanians, Serbians, Rou- 
manians, Bulgarians, and Greeks all subject 
to the hated Turks. It set upon three thrones, 
once vacant, kings who were hated by their 
subjects. It divided the Poles up among four 
different governments — for, strange as it may 
seem, the powers could not decide who should 
own the city of Cracow and the territory around 
it, and they ended by making this district a 
little republic, under the joint protection of 
Austria, Prussia, and Russia. In fact, the 
Swiss, serene in their lofty mountains, were 
almost the only small people of Europe who 
were left untroubled. The Congress of 1815 
had laid the foundation for future revolutions 
and wars without number. 

At first, the Poles were fairly well treated by 
the Russians, but after two or three unsuccessful 
attempts at a revolution, Poland, which, as one 
of the states of the Russian Empire, was still 
called a kingdom, was deprived of all its rights. 



The Map of Europe 133 

and its people were forced to give up the use of 

their language in their schools, their courts, 

and even their churches. In the same fashion, 

the Poles in Prussia were ''not even allowed to 

think in Polish," as one Polish patriot bitterly 

put it. All through the first half of the 19th 

century, there were uprisings and struggles 

among these people. As a result of one of them, 

in 1846, the little Republic of Cracow was 

abolished, and its territory forcibly annexed 

to Austria. 

The Italian people formed secret societies 

which had for their object the uniting of Italy, 

and the freeing of its people from foreign rulers. 

All through Germany there were mutterings 

of discontent. The people wanted more free- Discon- 

dom from their lords. Greece broke out into tented 

common 
insurrection against the Turks, and fifteen years people 

after the Congress of 1815 won its right to 

independence. Not long afterwards, the 

southern half of the Netherlands broke itself 

loose from the northern half, and declared to 

the world that it should henceforth be a new 

kingdom, under the name of Belgium. About 

the same time, the people of France rose up 

against the Bourbon kings, and threw them out 

''for good." A distant cousin of the king was 

elected, not "king of France" but "citizen king 

of the French," and the people were allowed 



134 



The Story of 



to elect men to represent them in a parliament 
or Congress at Paris. In Spain, one revolution 
followed another. For a short time, Spain was 
a repubhc, but the people were not well enough 
educated to govern themselves, and the kingdom 
was restored. 




PRINCE METTERNICH 



The statesman who had more to do with the 
division of territory in 1815 than any other was 
Prince Metternich of Austria. He stood for the 
''divine right of kings," and did not believe in 
allowing the common people any liberty what- 
soever. In 1848, an uprising occurred in Aus- 
tria, and crowds in Vienna, crying, ''down with 
Metternich," forced the aged diplomat to flee. 
During the same year, there were outbreaks 
in Germany. The people everywhere were 



The Map of Europe 135 

revolting against the feudal rights of their 
kings and princes, and gaining greater liberty 
for themselves. In 1848, France, also, grew 
tired of her ''citizen king," and that country a 
second time became a republic. The French 
made the mistake, however, of electing as their 
president, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew 
of the great Napoleon, and in time he did 
exactly what his uncle had done, — persuaded 
the French people to elect him emperor. 

Questions for Review 

(a) What were the motives of each of the nations repre- 
sented at the Congress of Vienna? 

(6) Why were the Russians and Prussians the leaders of the 
meeting at first? 

(c) Why did the English and Austrians assist each other? 

{(I) What had Napoleon done for Poland? (See last 
chapter.) 

(e) What kings deposed by Napoleon were set back on their 
thrones? 

(/) What were the greatest wrongs done by the Congress? 

(g) How did the Poles protest against the settlement made 
by the Congress? 

(h) What did the Belgians do about it? 

(i) What did the French finally do to the Bourbon kings? 



Chapter XI 
ITALY A NATION AT LAST 

The Crimean War curbs Russia. — Cavour plans a United 
Italy. — War against Austria. — Garibaldi, the patriot, — 
The Kingdom of Sardinia becomes part of the new Kingdom 
of' Italy. — Venice and Rome are added, — Some Italians 
still outside the kingdom. 

Meanwhile, Italy, under the leadership of two 
patriots named Mazzini and Garibaldi, was in a 
turmoil. The Austrians and the Italian princes 
who were subject to them were constantly 
crushing some attempted revolution. 

One thing which helped the cause of the 
, people was that the great powers were all jealous 

Jealousy of ^ ^ • i i 

the nations of each other. For example, Russia attacked 
Turkey in 1853, but France and England were 
afraid that if Russia conquered the Turks and 
took Constantinople, she would become too 
powerful for them. Therefore, both countries 
rushed troops to aid Turkey, and in the end, 
Russia was defeated, although thousands of 
soldiers were killed on both sides before the 
struggle was over. 

You will remember that the counties of 

jj^g Piedmont and Savoy in western Italy, together 

beginnings ^j^]^ ^^e island of Sardinia, made up a little 
of modern . ,^ 

Italy kingdom known as the ''Kingdom of Sardmia. 

130 



The Map of Europe 137 

This country had for its prime minister, a 
statesman named Count Cavour, who, Uke all _ 

' ^ Count 

Italians, strongly hoped for the day when all the Cavour 
people living on the Italian peninsula should be 
one nation. At the time of the Crimean War 
(as the war between Russia on the one side and 
Turkey, France, and England on the other was 
called) he caused his country also to declare 
war on Russia, and sent a tiny army to fight 
alongside of the English and French. A few 
years later, he secretly made a bargain with 
Napoleon III. (This was what President 
Bonaparte of France called himself after he had diplomacy 
been elected emperor.) The French agreed 
to make war with his country against the 
Austrians. If they won, the Sardinians were 
to receive all north Italy, and in return for 
France's help were to give France the county 
of Savoy and the seaport of Nice. 

When Cavour and the French were all ready 
to strike, it was not hard to find an excuse for a 
war. Austria declared war on Sardinia, and, as 
had been arranged, France rushed to the aid of 
the Italians. Austria was speedily beaten, 
but no sooner was the war finished than the 
French emperor repented of his bargain. He 
was afraid that it would make trouble for him 
with his Catholic subjects if the Italians were 
allowed to take all the northern half of the 



The spirit 



138 The Story of 

peninsula, including the pope's lands, into their 
kingdom. Accordingly, the Sardinians re- 
ceived only Lombardy in return for Savoy and 
Nice, which they gave to France, and the 
Austrians kept the county of Venetia. A fire 
once kindled, however, is hard to put out. No 
sooner did the people of the other states of 
northern Italy see the success of Sardinia, than, 
of revolt one after another, they revolted against their 
Austrian princes and voted to join the new 
kingdom of Italy. In this way, Parma, Mo- 
dena, Tuscany, and part of the ^^ States of the 
Church" were added. All of this happened in 
the 3^ear 1859. 

These ^^ States of the Church" came to be 
formed in the following way: The father of the 
great king of the Franks, Charlemagne, who had 
been crowned western emperor by the pope in 
the year 800, had rescued northern Italy from 
the rule of the Lombards. He had made the 
pope lord of a stretch of territory extending 
across Italy from the Adriatic Sea to the Medi- 

The pope terranean. The inhabitants of this country had 
as a feudal ^ ^ ^ 

lord no ruler but the pope. They paid their taxes to 

him, and acknowledged him as their feudal lord. 

It was part of this territory which revolted and 

joined the new kingdom of Italy. 

You will remember the name of Garibaldi, 

the Italian patriot, who with Mazzini had been 



ii 



The Map of Europe 139 

stirring up trouble for the Austrians. They 
finally pursued him so closely that he had to 
leave Italy. He came to America and set up a j.^^ 
fruit store in New York City, where there were greatest 

•^ ' Italian 

quite a number of his countrymen. By 1854, patriot 

he had made a great deal of money in the fruit 

business, but had not forgotten his beloved 

country, and was anxious to be rich only in order 

that he might free Italy from the Austrians. He 

sold out his business in New York, and taking 

all his money, sailed for Italy. When the 

war of 1859 broke out, he volunteered, and 

fought throughout the campaign. 

But the compromising terms of peace galled 

him, and he was not satisfied with a country 

only half free. In the region around Genoa, ^ ^ 

" ' A hazard- 

he enrolled a thousand men to go on what ous venture 

looked like a desperate enterprise. Garibaldi 

had talked with Cavour, and between them, 

they had schemed to overthrow the kingdom 

of the Two Sicilies and join this land to the 

northern country. Of course, Cavour pretended 

not to know anything about Garibaldi, for the 

king of Naples and Sicily was supposed to be a 

friend of the king of Sardinia. Nevertheless, 

he secretly gave Garibaldi all the help that he 

dared, and urged men to enroll with him. 

With his thousand ''red-shirts," as they were 

called, Garibaldi landed on the island of Sicily, 



140 



The Story of 




The Map of Europe 141 

at Marsala. The inhabitants rose to welcome 
him, and everywhere they drove out the officers 
who had been appointed by their king to rule 
them. In a short time, all Sicily had risen in Sicily rises 
rebeUion against the king. (You will remember 
that this family of kings had been driven out 
by Napoleon and restored by the Congress of 
Vienna in 1815. They were Bourbons, the 
same family that furnished the kings of Spain 
and the last kings of France. They stood for 
''the divine right of kings," and had no sym- 
pathy with the common people.) Crossing over 
to the mainland. Garibaldi, with his little army 
now swollen to ten times its former size, swept 
everything before him as he marched toward 
Naples. Everywhere, the people rose against 
their former masters, and welcomed the liber- 
ator. The king fled in haste from Naples, never 
to return. A vote was taken all over the south- 
ern half of Italy and Sicily, to decide whether 
the people wanted to join their brothers of the 
north to make a new kingdom of Italy. It was 
so voted almost unanimously. Victor Emman- j^^ie 

uel, kins; of Sardinia, thus became the first ^^^sdom of 
' ^ ' Sardinia IS 

king of United Italy. He made Florence his no more 
capital at first, as the country around Rome 
still belonged to the pope. The pope had few 
soldiers, but was protected by a guard of 
French troops. However, ten years later, in 



142 The Story of 

1870, when war broke out between France and 

Prussia, the French troops left Rome, and the 

troops of Italy marched quietly in and took 

possession of the city. Rome, for so many 

years the capital, not only of Italy but of the 

whole Mediterranean world, became once more 

the chief city of the peninsula. The pope 

"Eternal ^^'^^ granted a liberal pension by the Italian 

City" once o-overnment in order to make up to him for 

more a 

capital the loss of the money from his former lands. 

The dream of Italians for the last 600 years 

had finally come to pass. Italy w^as again one 

country, ruled by the popular Victor Emmanuel, 

with a constitution which gave the people the 

right to elect representatives to a parliament 

or congress. One of the worst blunders of the 

Congress of Vienna had been set right by the 

patriotism of the people of Italy. 

It should be noted, however, that there are 

still Italians who are not part of this kingdom. 

The county of Venetia, at the extreme northeast 

,,., X , of Italy, was added to the kingdom in 1866 

What Italy *^ ' .,.,11 

still wished as the result of a war which will be told about 

more fully in the next chapter, but the territory 
around the city of Trent, called by the Italians 
Trentino, and the county of Istria at the 
head of the Adriatic Sea, containing the import- 
ant seaports of Trieste, Fiume, and Pola, are 
inhabited almost entirely by people of Italian 



ITALY 

Made One Nation 

1914 




Parma 
Pontremoli 
Modena 
Tuscany 

The Kingdom of 

the Two Sicilies 

Part of the 

States of the Church 



Revolted and 

voted to join 

Sardinia 

to form The 

Kingdom of 

Italy 

1859-1860 



ITALIANS NOT INCLUDED 
IN THE KINGDOM OF ITALY 
1914 
Republic of San Marino 
Istria "^ belonging 
Trentinoj to Austria 
Ticino part of Switzerland 

^^^°^1 ceded to France 1860 
Nice J 

Corsica- Seized by France 1768 



The Map of Europe 143 

blood. Certain islands along the coast of 
Dalmatia also are full of Italians. To rescue 
these people from the rule of Austria has been 
the earnest wish of all Italian patriots, and was 
the chief reason why Italy did not join Germany 
and Austria in the great war of 1914. 

Questions for Review 

(a) Why did England and France side with Turkey against 
Russia? 

(6) What bargain did Cavour make with Napoleon III? 

(c) How did the rest of Italy come to join Sardinia? 

(d) Explain the origin of the ''States of the Church." 

(e) Why did Sicily and Naples revolt against their king? 
(/) What Italians are not yet citizens of the kingdom of 

Italy? 



Chapter XII 
THE MAN OF BLOOD AND IRON 

The people demand their rights. — Bismarck, the chief 
prop of the Prussian monarchy. — The question of the leader- 
ship of the German states. — The wonderful Prussian army. — 
The war on Denmark. — Preparing to crush Austria. — The 
battle of Sadowa. — Easy terms to the defeated nation. — 
Preparing to defeat France. — A good example of a war 
caused by diplomats. — Prussia's easy victory. — The new 
German empire. — Harsh terms of peace. — The triumph 
of feudal government. 

All of this time, the kings of Europe had been 

engaged in contests with their own people. 

The overthrow of the French king at the time 

of the revolution taught the people of the other 

countries of Europe that they too could obtain 

- their liberties. You have already been told 

1848, a year j^Q^y ^]^g people of Austria drove out Prince 
of popular ^ ^ 

uprisings Metternich, who was the leader of the party 
which refused any rights to the working classes. 
That same year, 1848, had seen the last king 
driven out of France, had witnessed revolts in 
all parts of Ital}^, and had found many German 
princes in trouble with their subjects, who were 
demanding a share in the government, the right 
of free speech, free newspapers, and trial by 
jury. The empires of Austria and Russia had 

144 



The Map of Europe 



145 




BISMARCK 



joined with the kingdom of Prussia in a com- 
bination which was known as the ''Holy AlU- The "Holy 
ance." This was meant to stop the further ^^^^f^^^ 
spread of repubUcan ideas and to curb the people 
growing power of the common people. 

Not long after this, there came to the front 



146 



The Story of 



m^Tof*" Bismarck. 



in Prussia a remarkable man, who for the next 
forty years was perhaps the most prominent 
statesman in Europe. His full name was Otto 
Eduard Leopold von Bismarck-Schonhausen, 
but we generally know him under the name of 
He was a Prussian nobleman, a 
beUever in the divine right of kings, the man 
who more than anybody else is responsible for 
the establishing of the present empire of Ger- 
many. He once made a speech in the Prussian 
Diet or council in which he said that ^' blood 
and iron," not speeches and treaties, would 
unite Germany into a nation. His one object 
was a united Germany, which should be the 
strongest nation in Europe. He wanted Ger- 
many to be ruled by Prussia, Prussia to be 
ruled by its king, and the king of Prussia to be 
controlled by Bismarck. It is marvellous to see 
how near he came to carrying through his whole 
plan. 

After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Prussia 
remained among the powers of Europe, but was 
not as great as Austria, Russia, England, or 
France. The German states, some 35 in num- 
ber, had united in a loose alliance called the 
German Confederation. (This union was some- 
what similar to the United States of America 
between 1776 and 1789.) Austria was the 
largest of these states, and was naturally looked 



The Map of Europe 147 

upon as the leader of the whole group. Prussia 
was the second largest, while next after Prussia, 
and much smaller, came the kingdoms of 
Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and Wurtemburg. 
Bismarck, as prime minister of Prussia, built 
up a wonderfully strong army. He did this by 
means of a military system which at first made of Prussia 
him very unpopular with the people. Every 
man in the nation, rich or poor, was obliged to 
serve a certain number of years in the army and 
be ready at a moment's notice to join a certain 
regiment if there came a call to war. 

Having organized this army, and equipped 
it with every modern weapon, Bismarck was 
anxious to use it to accomplish his purpose. 
There were two counties named Schleswig 
(shlesVig) and Holstein (horstin) which be- 
longed to the king of Denmark and yet con- 
tained a great many German people. The 
inhabitants of Schleswig were perhaps half 
Danes, while those of Holstein were more than 
two-thirds Germans. These Germans had pro- 
tested against certain actions of the Danish 
government, and were threatening to revolt. 
Taking advantage of this trouble, Prussia and 
Austria, as the leading states of the German conquest 
Federation, declared war on httle Denmark. 
The Danes fought valiantly, but were over- 
whelmed by the armies of their enemies. 



148 The Story of 

Scrhlciswi^ and IFolslxMn were torn away from 
Denmark and put un(l(;r the joint protection ol" 
Austria, a,nd l^russia. 

'I'his sort ol" arran^cMiKuit c'ould not last. 
Soon(^r or later, there was hound to h(^ a (juarrel 
over tlie (hvision of the [)hm(ler. Now I^is- 
niarck ha-d a chance t-o show his c^raft-y (hplo- 
ma,cy. He ma<le up his mind to crush Austria 
and put, I^russia in her phice as t,h(^ header of the 
(lerman stat-c^s. lie first n(^j2;otiated with 
Napoleon III, pjnperor of the l*'ren(rh, and mad(^ 
sure thai this monarch would not intci'fei'c^ 
Next he i-ememhered tJiaX Uu) provincres of 
V(Mietia,, Trentino, and Istria still })el()ni!:e(l to 

More 

diplomacy Austria,, as the Italians had failed to j!;ain them 
in the war of hSf)!). Ac(*ordin^ly, l>isma,rck 
induced Italy to dec^lare war on Austria, by 
promising h(U" V(Miet,ia a,nd the other j)r<)vinces 
in retui'n for \wr aid. Saxony, Bavaria, and 
Hanover were fiiendly to Austria, hut Bismarck 
did not fear them, lie knew that, his army, 
undc^r the lead(^rship of its celebrated j!;(^ner-al, 
von Moltke, was mon^ than a match for the 
Austrians, Bavarians, etc., combined. 

When Bismai'ck was ready, Prussia and Italy 
struck. The Austrians were successful at first 
against- the Italians, but at Sadowa in Bohemia, 
their armies were beaten in a tremendous 
battle by the Prussians. Austria was put down 



The Map of PJuropc 149 

from her place as the leader of the (German 
Confederation, and Prussia took the leadersliip. 
Hanover, whose kinj»; had sided with the Aus- 
trians, was annexed to Prussia. The king of ^^ ^j^^ 
Prussia and scleral of his generals were anxious y^c^ors 

_ belong the 

to rob Austria of some of lu^r territory, as had spoils 
been the custom in tlu^ j)ast whenever one 
nation d(»feat(Ml another in war. liismarck, 
h()W(n^(^r, n^straiiHMl them. In his program of 
making Prussia thc^ heading military state in 
Europe, he saw that his next opi^orient would b(^ 
France, and he (hd not propose, on attack- 
ing Frances, in find his army assailed in the rear 
by the nn'engeful Austrians. Accordingly, 
Bismarck compelled (he king to let Austria off 
without any loss of territory exc^ept V(Mi(^tia, 
which was given to the Italians. Austria was 
even allowed to rc^tain Tn^ntino and Istria, and 
was not HHiuired to pay a large ind(;nmity to 

IVussia. (A custom which had come down . . . 

A nation's 
from i\\('. middle ag(^s, when citi(\s whicrh wciv ransom 

captured had be(in obliged to pay great sums 

of money, in order to get rid of the concpiering 

armies, was the payment of a war indenmity 

by the defeated nation. This was a sum of 

money as larger as the conquerors thought 

they could safely forces their victiins to pay.) 

The Austrians, although they wow, angry over 

the manner in which Bismarck had provoked 



150 



The Story of 



the war, nevertheless appreciated the fact 
that he was generous in not forcing harsh 
terms upon them, as he could have done had 
he wanted to. 

The eyes of all Europe now turned toward 
the coming struggle between Prussia and 
France. It was plain that it was impossible 
for two men like Bismarck and Emperor 
Napoleon to continue in power very long with- 
out coming to blows. It was Bismarck's 
ambition, as was previously said, to make 
Prussia the leading military nation of Europe, 
and he knew that this meant a struggle with 
Napoleon. You will remember also that he 
planned a united Germany, led by Prussia, and 
he felt that the French war would bring this 
about. On the other hand, the French emperor 
was extremely jealous of the easy victory that 
Prussia and Italy had won over Austria. He 
had been proud of the French army, and wanted 
it to remain the greatest fighting force in 
Europe. He was just as anxious for an excuse 
to attack Prussia as Bismarck was for a pretext 
to attack him. 

It should be kept in mind that all this time 
there was no ill-feehng between the French 
people and the Germans. In fact, the Germans 
of the Rhine country were very friendly to 
France, and during Napoleon's time had been 



The Map of Europe 151 

given more liberties and had been governed 

better than under the rule of their former feudal 

lords. All the hostility and jealousy was 

between the military chiefs. Even Bismarck 

did not dislike the French. He had no feehng hostility is 

toward them at all. It was part of his program °^^y ,^ 

^ jr o among the 

that their military power should be crushed and chiefs 
his program must be carried through. Europe, 
to his mind, was too small to contain more than 
one master military power. 

The four years between 1866 and 1870 were 
used by Bismarck to gain friends for Prussia 
among other countries of Europe, and to make 
enemies for France. The kingdoms of south 
Germany (Bavaria, Baden, and Wurtemburg), 
which had sided with Austria during the late 
war, were friendly to France and hostile to 
Prussia. Napoleon III, however, made a pro- 
posal in writing to Bismarck that France should 
be given a slice of this south German territory 
in return for some other land which France was 
to allow Prussia to seize. Bismarck pretended 
to consider this proposal, but was careful to keep 
the original copy, in the French ambassador's 

own handwriting. (Each nation sends a man diplomatic 

maneuver- 
to represent her at the capital of each other ing 

nation. These men are called ambassadors. 

They are given power to sign agreements for 

their governments.) By showing this to the 



152 



The Story of 



Preparing 
enemies 
for France 



rulers of the little south German kingdoms, he 
was able to turn them against Napoleon and to 
make secret treaties with these states by which 
they bound themselves to fight on the side of 
Prussia in case a war broke out with France. 
In similar fashion, Bismarck made the Belgians 
angry against the French by letting it be known 
that Napoleon was trying to annex their 
country also. 

Meanwhile, aided by General von Moltke 
and Count von Roon (ron), Bismarck had built 
up a wonderful military power. Every man in 
Prussia had been trained a certain number of 
years in the army and was ready at a moment's 
notice to join his regiment. The whole cam- 
paign against France had been planned months 
in advance. In France on the other hand, the 
illness and advanced age of Napoleon III had 
resulted in poor organization. Men who did 
not wish to serve their time in the army were 
allowed to pay money to the government 
instead. Yet their names were carried on the 
rolls. In this way, the French army had not 
Efficiency ^^^^ ^^^ strength in actual numbers that it had 
ys- . on paper. What is more, certain government 

memciency ^ ^ ? c 

and "graft" officials had taken advantage of the emperor's 
weakness and lack of system and had put into 
their own pockets money that should have been 
spent in buying guns and ammunition. 



«i 



The Map of Europe 153 

When at last Bismarck was all ready for the 
war, it was not hard to find an excuse. Old 
Queen Isabella of Spain had been driven from 
her throne, and the Spanish army under General 
Prim offered the crown to Prince Leopold of 
Hohenzollern, a cousin of the king of Prussia. 
This alarmed Napoleon, who imagined that if 
Prussia attacked him on the east, this Prussian 
prince, as king of Spain, would lead the Spanish |^^ . 
army over the Pyrenees against him on the question 
south. France made so vigorous a protest that 
the prince asked the Spaniards not to think of 
him any longer. This was not enough for 
Napoleon, who now proceeded to make a fatal 
mistake. The incident was closed, but he 
persisted in reopening it. He sent his ambassa- 
dor to see King William of Prussia to ask the 
latter to assure France that never again should 
Prince Leopold be considered for the position 
of king of Spain. The king answered that he 
could not guarantee this, for he was merely the 
head of the Hohenzollern family. Prince Leo- 
pold, whose lands lay outside of Prussia, was not 
even one of his subjects. The interview 
between the king and the French ambassador 
had been a friendly one. The ambassador had 
been very courteous to the king, and the king 
had been very polite to the ambassador. They 
had parted on good terms. 




(154) 



The Map of Europe 155 

In the meanwhile, Bismarck had been hoping 
that an excuse for war would come from this 
incident. He was at dinner with General 
von Moltke and Count von Roon when a long 
telegram came from the king, telling of his 
interview with the French ambassador. In 
the story of his life written by himself, Bismarck 
tells how, as he read the telegram both Roon and 
Moltke groaned in disappointment. He says 
that Moltke seemed to ha\'e grown older in a 
minute. Both had earnestly hoped that war 
would come. Bismarck took the dispatch, '^^^^ 

^ ' shortened 

sat down at a table, and began striking out the message 
polite words and the phrases that showed that 
the meeting had been a friendly one. He cut 
down the original telegram of two hundred 
words to one of twenty. When he had finished, 
the message sounded as if the French ambassa- 
dor had bullied and threatened the king of 
Prussia, while the latter had snubbed and 
insulted the Frenchman. Bismarck read the 

altered telegram to Roon and Moltke. In- , ,^ 

" _ An altered 

stantly, they brightened up and felt better, meaning 

"How is that?" he asked. "That will do it," 

they answered. "War is assured." 

The telegram was given to the newspapers, 

and within twenty-four hours, the people of 

Paris and Berlin were shouting for war. Napo- J^® P^^^^ 

taKes 

leon III hesitated, but he finally gave in to his a hand 



156 



The Story of 




The Map of Europe 157 

jj;enerals and his wife who urged him to ''avenge 
the insult to the French nation." 

We give this story of the starting of the 
Franco-Prussian war of 1870 just to show the 
tricks of European diplomats. What Bismarck 
did was no worse than what the FnMichman, 
Talleyrand, would have done, or the Austrian, 
Metternich, or several of the English or Russian 
diplomats. It simply proves how helpless the Js^pup^p^Jis^ 
})e()ple of European countries are, when the of kings 
military class which rules them has decided, for diplomats 
its own power and glory, on war with some 
other nation. 

The war was short. The forces of France 
were miserably unprepared. The first great 
defeat of the T'rench army resulted in the 
capture of the emperor by the Prussians and the 
overthrowing of th(» government in Paris, where Revolution 

^ ^ ' and 

a third republic was startcMJ. One of the French treason 
generals turiKHJ traitor, thinking that if he 
surrendered his army and cut short the war 
the Prussians would force the French to take 
Napoleon III Inick as emperor. Paris was 
besi(^ged for a long time. The people lived on 
mule meat and even on rats and mice rather 
than surrender to the Germans, but at last 
they weri^ starved out, and peace was made. 

In the meantime, another of Bismarck's plans , ♦ 

had been successful. In .lamiaiy, 1871, while 



158 



The Story of 



|i 

U. 



o a 








Addet 
the C 
Vienn 
Schle 


1 




>ii 


f E 
s 2 


i 




= 




1 




1 





The Map of Europe 159 

the siege of Paris was yet going on, he induced 
the kingdoms of Bavaria and Wurtemburg, 
together with Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and all 
the other little German states to join Prussia 
in forming a new empire of Germany. The The new 
king of Prussia was to be '^German Emperor," Germany 
and the people of Germany were to elect rep- 
resentatives to the Reichstag or Imperial 
Congress. Although at the outset, the war was 
between the kingdom of Prussia and the empire 
of France, the treaty of peace was signed by 
the republic of France and the empire of Ger- 
many. 

Bismarck was very harsh in his terms of 
peace. France was condemned to pay an 
indemnity of 5,000,000,000 francs (nearly one 
billion dollars) and certain parts of France were 
to be occupied by the German troops until this 
money was fully paid. Two counties of France, 
Alsace and Lorraine, were to be annexed to 
Germany. Alsace was inhabited largely by 
people of German descent, but there were many 
French mingled with them, and the whole 
province had belonged to France so long that 
its people felt themselves to be wholly French. 
Lorraine contained very few Germans, and was 
taken, contrary to Bismarck's best judgment, ^."^*^®^ 
because it contained the important city of blunder 
Metz, which was strongly fortified. Here the 



160 The Story of 

military chiefs overruled Bismarck. The desire 
among the French for revenge on Germany for 
taking this French-speaking province has proved 
that Bismarck was right. It was a blunder of 
the worst kind. 

The policy of ''blood and iron" had been 
successful. From a second rate power, Prussia 
had risen, under Bismarck's leadership, to 
become the strongest military force in Europe. 
Schleswig had been torn from Danish, Holstein 
from Austrian control. Hanover had been 
forcibly annexed, and Alsace and Lorraine 
wrested from France. The greater part of the 
inhabitants of these countries were bitterly 
unhappy at being placed under the Prussian 
military rule. Moreover, it must be remem- 
bered that a great deal of this growth in power 
had been at the expense of the liberty of the 
common people. The revolution of 1848 had 
demanded free speech, free newspapers, the 
right to vote, and the right to elect men to a 
congress or parliament, and while some of these 
rights had been granted, still the whole country 
was under the control of the war department. 
The emperor, as commander-in-chief of the 
army, could suppress any newspaper and dismiss 
the congress whenever he might think this 
proper. The Reichstag was, as it has been 
called, a big debating society, whose members 



The Map of Europe 161 

had the right to talk, but were not allowed to 
pass any laws that were contrary to the wishes 
of the military leaders. 

Questions for Review 

(a) What was the reason for the revolts of 1848 all over 
Europe? 

(6) What was the object of the "Holy AUiance"? 

(c) What was Bismarck's purpose in building up a strong 
army? 

(d) How did Bismarck defeat Austria? 

(e) W^hat is a war indemnity? 

(/) Explain how Bismarck made enemies for Napoleon HI. 

(g) W^hy were the French alarmed when Spain offered its 
crown to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern? 

(h) What means did Bismarck use to bring on war with 
France? 

(i^i Was Prussia's victory a good thing for her people? 



Chapter XIII 



THE BALANCE OF POWER 



The recovery of France. — The jealousy of the powers. — 
The pohcy of uniting against the strongest. — The dream of 
Russia. — A war of Hberation. — The powers interfere in 
favor of the Turk.— The Congress of Berhn. — Bismarck's 
Triple Alliance.— France and Russia are driven together. — 
The race for war preparation. — The growth of big navies. 

Under the third republic,* France recovered 
very rapidly from the terrible blow dealt her 
by Germany. Her people worked hard and 
saved their money. In less than two years, 
they had paid off the last cent of the one billion 
dollar indemnity, and the German troops were 
obliged to go home. France had adopted the 
same military system that Germany had, and 
required all of her young men to serve two years 
in the army and be ready at a moment's notice 
to rush to arms. She began also to build up a 
strong navy, and to spread her colonies in Africa 
and other parts of the world. This rapid 
recovery of France surprised and disturbed 
Bismarck, who thought that never again, after 
rises again the war of 1870, would she become a strong 
power. He had tried to renew the old ^'Holy 

*Thc first republic began in 1792, when King Louis XVI was beheaded, 
the second in 1848 when Louis Philippe, the " citizen king," was driven out. 

162 



The Map of Europe 163 

Alliance" between Germany, Russia, and Aus- 
tria with the idea of preventing the spread of 
republics. These were the three nations which 
gave their people very few rights, and which 
stood for the '' divine right of kings" and for 
the crushing of all republics. Bismarck called 
this new combination the " Drei-kaiser-bund" 
or three-emperor-bond. He himself says that ^i^.^^^JJ^ 
the proposed alliance fell to pieces because of the emperors 
lies and treachery of Prince Gortchakoff, the 
Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs. 

An incident which happened in 1875 helped 
to estrange Germany from Russia. As was 
previously said, Bismarck was astonished and 
alarmed when he saw how quickly France was 
getting over the effects of the war. In 1875, 
some trouble came up again between France and 
Germany, and Bismarck a second time planned 
to make war on the republic and complete the 
task that he had left unfinished in 1871. He 
wanted to reduce France to the rank of a 
second class power, on a par with Spain and 
Denmark. This time, however, England and 
Russia growled ominously. They notified Bis- 
marck that they would not stand by and see of ^he^^^ 
France crushed — not from any love of France, growing 

•^ ' strength of 

but because they were jealous of Prussia and Prussia 
afraid that the Germans might become too 
powerful in Europe. Accordingly, Bismarck 



164 



The Story of 




PETER THE GREAT 



The 

balance of 
power 



had to give up his idea of war. Prussia was 
strong, but she could not fight England, Russia, 
and France combined. However, he remem- 
bered that England and Russia had spoiled 
his plans and waited for a chance to get revenge. 
The great object of all European diplomats 
was to maintain what they called ''the balance 
of power." By this they meant that no one 



The Map of Europe 165 

country was to be allowed to grow so strong 
that she could defy the rest of Europe. When- 
ever one nation grew too powerful, the others 
combined to pull her down. 

In the meantime, trouble was again brewing 
among the Balkan nations, which were still sub- 
ject to the Turks. Revolts had broken out 
among the Serbians, and the people of Bosnia 
and Bulgaria. As has already been told, Russia 

. . ^ ' champion 

these nations are Slavic, cousins of the Russians, of the Slavs 
and they have always looked upon Russia as 
their big brother and protector. Any keen- 
eared, intelligent Russian can understand the 
language of the Serbs, it is so much like his own 
tongue. (Bel-grad, Petro-grad; the word ^'grad" 
means ''city" in both languages.) 

Not only was Russia hostile toward the Turks 
because they were oppressing the little Slav 
states, but she had reasons of her own for 
wanting to see Turkey overthrown. Ever since 
the reign of Peter the Great, Russia had had her 
eye upon Constantinople. Peter had con- 
quered the district east of the Gulf of Finland, 

and had founded St. Petersburg* there, just to Toward 

warmer 

give Russia a port which was free of ice. In the seas 
same way, other czars who followed him had 
fought their way southward to the Black Sea, 
seeking for a chance to trade with the Mediter- 

*Now called Petrograd. 



166 



The titory of 




ENTRANCE TO THE MO^gUK OF ST. SOPHIA 



The 

mosque of 
St. Sophia 



ranean world. But the Black Sea was like a 
bottle, and the Turks at Constantinople were 
able to stop the Russian trade at any time 
they might wish to do so. Russia is an agri- 
cultural country, and must ship her grain to 
countries that are more densely inhabited, to 
exchange it for their manufactures. 

Therefore, it has been the dream of ever}' 
Russian czar that one day Russia might own 
Constantinople. Again, this city, in ancient 
days, was the home of the Greek church, as 
Rome was the capital of the western Catholic 
church. The Russians are all Greek Catholics, 
and every Russian looks forward to the da}- 



The Map of Europe 167 

when the great church of St. Sophia, which is 

now a Mohammedan mosque, shall once more 

be the home of Christian worship. With this 

plan in mind, Russian diplomats were only too 

happy to stir up trouble for the Turks among 

the Slavic peoples of the Balkan states, as 

Serbia, Bulgaria, Roumania, and Montenegro 

are called. Glance at the two following; maps of ^, , 

° ^ The losses 

southeastern Europe, and see how Turkey had of Turkey 
l^een reduced in size during the two hundred 
years which followed the Turkish defeat at the 
gates of Vienna by John Sobieski and the Aus- 
trians (page 81). The state of Bessarabia had 
changed hands two or three times, remaining 
finally in the hands of Russia. 

The revolts of the Balkan peoples in 1875 and 
1876 were hailed with joy among the Russians, 
and the government at St. Petersburg lost no Russia wins 
time in rushing to the aid of the Balkan states ^f^^J®"? ^^^ 

the Balkan 
and declaring war on Turkey. After a short Slavs 

but stubbornly contested conflict, Russia and 

the little countries were victors. A treaty of 

peace was signed at San Stephano, by which 

Roumania, Serbia, and Bulgaria were to be 

recognized by Turkey as independent states. 

The boundaries of Bulgaria were to reach 

to the Aegean Sea, including most of Macedonia, 

thus cutting off Turkey from her county of 

Albania, except by water. Bear this in mind, 



The Story of 




The Map of Europe 



169 



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(170) 



The Map of Europe 171 

for it will help you to understand Russia's 

later feeling when Bulgaria in 1915 joined the 

ranks of her enemies. 

The matter was all settled, and Turkey had 

accepted these terms, when once more the 

diplomats of Europe began to meddle. It will 

be remembered that Russia three years before ^^ 

*; The powers 

had prevented a second war against France intervene 
planned by Bismarck. It was very easy 
for him to persuade Austria and England that 
if Russia were allowed to cripple Turkey and 
set up three new kingdoms which would be 
under her control, she would speedily become 
the strongest nation in Europe. The ''balance 
of power" would be disturbed. England and 
Austria sided with Germany, and a meeting of 
statesmen and diplomats was called at Berlin 
in 1878 to decide once more what should be the 
map of Europe. Representatives were present 
from all the leading European countries. Even 
Turkey had two men at the meeting, but the 
three men who really controlled were Bismarck, 
Count Andrassy of Austria, and Lord Beacons- 
field (Benjamin Disraeli) of England. Russia 
was robbed of a great part of the fruits of her 
victory. Bulgaria was left partially under the 
control of Turkey, in that she had to pay TheBaikan 
Turkey a large sum of money each year for the unsolved 
privilege of being left alone. Her territory was 



172 



The Story of 



made much smaller than had been agreed to by 
the treaty of San Stephano. In fact less than 
one-third of the Bulgarians were living within 
the boundaries finally agreed upon by the con- 
gress. A great part of the Serbians were still 
left under Turkish rule, as were the Greeks of 

Austria Thessaly and Epirus. The two counties of 

administers ^ ^ , 

Bosnia Bosnia and Herzegovina were still to belong to 

Turkey, but as the Turks did not seem to be 
strong enough to keep order there, Austria was 
to take control of them and run their govern- 
ment, although their taxes were still to be paid 
to Turkey. Austria solemnly agreed never to 
take them from Turkey. Russia, naturally, 
was very unhappy over this arrangement, 
and so were the inhabitants of the Balkan 
kingdoms, for they had hoped that now they 
were at last to be freed from the oppression of 
their ancient enemies, the Turks. Thus the 
Congress of Berlin, like that of Vienna in 1815 
(see page 127), laid the foundation for future 
wars and revolutions. 

Bismarck now set out to strengthen Germany 
by making alliances with other European states. 
He first made up with his old enemy, Austria. 
Thanks to the liberal treatment that he had 
given this country after her disastrous war 
of 1866, he was able to get the Austrians to join 
Germany in an alliance which states that if two 



New com- 
binations 
among the 
powers 



The Map of Europe 173 

countries of Europe should ever attack one of 
the two aUies, the other would rush to her help. 
The Italians were friendly to Germany, for 
they remembered that they had gotten Venetia 
from Austria through the help of the Prussians, 
but they had always looked upon the Austrians 
as their worst enemies. It was a wonderful 
thing, then, when Bismarck finally induced 
Italy to join with Austria and Germany in a 
^' Dreibund" or '^Triple Alhance.'' Bismarck's 

^ "Drei- 

The Italian people had been very friendly to bund" 

the French, and this going over to their enemies 

would never have been possible but for an act 

of France which greatly angered Italy. For 

many years, France had been in control of 

Algeria on the north coast of Africa. This 

country had once been a nest of pirates, and the 

French had gone there originally to clean them 

out. Next to Algeria on the east is the county 

of Tunis, which, as you will see by the map, is 

very close to Sicily and Italy. The Italians 

had been looking longingly at this district for 

some time, intending to organize an expedition 

and forcibly annex it to their kingdom. They 

waited too long, however, and one fine day in 

1881 they found the prize gone, — France had 

seized this county for herself. It was Italy's Italian 

anger over this act of France more than any- ^^ser 

° -^ against 

thing else that enabled Bismarck to get her France 



174 



The Story of 



The Dual 
Alliance 



Again the 
balance of 
power 



into an alliance with Germany and her ancient 
enemy, Austria. 

France now saw herself hemmed in on the 
east by a chain of enemies. It looked as though 
Bismarck might declare war upon the republic 
at any time, and be perfectly safe from inter- 
ference, with Austria and Italy to protect him. 
Russia, smarting under the treatment which she 
had been given by the Congress of Berlin, was 
full of resentment against Germany. Both 
the French and the Russians felt themselves 
threatened by Bismarck's Dreibund, and so, 
in self-defense each country made advance 
toward the other. The result was the '^Dual 
Alliance" between France and Russia, which 
bound either country to come to the aid of the 
other in case of an attack by two powers at 
once. 

In this way, the balance of power, disturbed 
by Bismarck's '' Dreibund," was again restored. 
Many people thought the forming of the two 
alhances a fine thing, ''for," said they, ''each 
party is now too strong to be attacked by the 
other. Therefore, we shall never again have 
war among the great powers." 

England was not tied up with either alliance. 
On account of her position on an island, and 
because of her strong navy, she did not feel 
obliged to keep a large standing army such as 



The Map of Europe 175 

the great powers on the continent maintained. 

These nations were kept in constant fear of 
war. As soon as France equipped her army 
with machine guns, Germany and Austria had 
to do the same. As soon as the Germans in- 
vented a new magazine rifle, the Russians and 
French had to invent similar arms for their 
soldiers. If Germany passed a law compelling 
all men up to the age of forty-five to report 
for two weeks' mihtary training once every Europe 
year, France and Russia had to do the same, camp 
If Italy built some powerful warships, France 
and Russia had to build still more powerful 
ones. This led to still larger ships built by 
Germany and Italy. If France built a fleet 
of one hundred torpedo boats, the Triple 
Alliance had to ''go her one better" by building 
one hundred and fifty. If Germany equipped 
her army with war balloons, Russia and France 
had to do the same. If France invented a new 
kind of heavy artillery, Germany and Austria 
built a still bigger gun. 

This mad race for war equipment was bad 
enough when it had to do only with the five 
nations in the two alliances about which you 
have been told. However, the death of the old 
emperor of Germany in 1888 brought to the 
throne his grandson, the present Kaiser,* and he 

*The present Kaiser's father reigned only ninety-nine days, as he was 
IX very sick man at the time of the old emperor's death. 



176 The Story of 

formed a plan for making Germany the leading 
nation on the sea as Bismarck had made her 
on the land. He saw France and England 
seizing distant colonies and dividing up Africa 
between them. He at once announced that 
Germany, too, must have colonies to which to 
export her manufactures and from which to 
bring back tropical products. This meant a 
strong navy to protect these colonies, and the 
race with England was on. As soon as Germany 
built some new battleships, England built still 
others, larger and with heavier guns. The next 
year, Germany would build still larger ships, 
and the next England would come back with 
still heavier guns. As fast as England built 
ships, Germany built them. Now, each battle- 
ship costs from five to fifteen million dollars, and 
it does not take long before a race of this kind 
sends the taxes too high for people to stand. 
There was unrest throughout Europe and mur- 
murs of discontent were heard among the 
working classes. 

Questions for Review 

(a) How did France pay off her war indemnity so promptly? 
(6) Why did Bismarck's three-emperor-alliance fail? 

(c) What is meant by "the balance of power"? 

(d) What was the condition of the Serbs, Bulgarians, etc. 
before 1878? 

(e) Why does Russia covet Constantinople? 



The Map of Europe 177 

(/) Why did the powers prevent the treaty of San Stephano 
from being carried out? 

(g) What wrongs were done by the Congi'ess of Berlin? 

(h) Why did Bismarck form the Triple Alhance? 

(0 How was he able to induce Italy to join her old enemy, 
Austria? 

(j) What was the effect of the formation of the Triple 
Alliance on France and Russia? 

(k) What result had the formation of the two alliances on 
the gun-industry? 

(I) How was England brought into the race for war 
equipment? 



Chapter XIV 
THE '^ENTENTE CORDIALE" 

Ancient enemies. — England and France in Africa. — A 
collision at Fashoda. — Germany offers to help France. — 
Delcasse the peacemaker. — A French-English agreement. — 
Friendship takes the place of hostility. — England's relations 
with Italy, Russia, and Germany. — Germans cultivate the 
friendship and trade of Turkey. — The Morocco-Algeciras 
incident. — The question of Bosnia and Herzegovina. — 
England joins France and Russia to form the "Triple 
Entente." — The Agadir incident. 

England and France had never been friendly. 
There had been wars between them, off and on, 
for five hundred years. The only time that they 
had fought on the same side was in the campaign 
against Russia in 1855, but even then there was 
no real sympathy between them. 

In the year 1882, events happened in Egypt 
which gave England an excuse for interfering 
with the government of that country. Egypt 
was a part of the Turkish empire, but so long 
as it paid a certain amount of money to 
Constantinople, the Turks did not care very 
much how it was governed. But now a wild 
chief of the desert had announced himself as 
the prophet Mohammed come to earth again, 
and a great many of the desert tribesmen had 

178 



The Map of Europe 



179 



joined him. They cut to pieces one or two 
EngHsh armies in Egypt, and killed General 
Gordon, a famous English soldier. It was 1898 
before the English were able to defeat this horde, r^^ie Arabs 
Lord Kitchener finally beat them and extended vs. Gordon 

and 

the English power to the city of Khartoom Kitchener 
on the Nile. 




AN ARAB yUEIK AND HIS STAFF 

In the meantime, the English millionaire, 

Cecil Rhodes, had formed a plan for a railroad 

which should run the entire length of Africa 

from the Cape of Good Hope to Cairo. It was 

England's ambition to control all the territory 

through which this road should run. But the '^^®".^^P® 
" . to Cairo" 

French, too, were spreading out over Africa, railroad 
Their expeditions through the Sahara Desert 
had joined their colonies of Algeria and Tunis to 
those on the west coast of Africa and others 
along the Gulf of Guinea. In this same year, 



180 The Story of 

1898, while Lord Kitchener was still fighting 
the Arabs, a French expedition under Major 
Marchand struggled across the Sahara and 
reached the Nile at Fashoda, several miles above 
Khartoom. Marchand planted the French flag 
and announced that he took possession of this 
territory for the republic of France. 

The English were very indignant when they 
heard of what Marchand had done. If France 
held Fashoda, their ''Cape to Cairo" railroad 
was cut right in the middle, and they could 
advance their territory no farther up the valley 
The quarrel q{ the Nile. They notified France that this 

over 

Fashoda was English land. Marchand retorted that no 
Englishman had ever set foot there, and that 
the French flag would never be hauled down 
after it had once been planted on the Nile. 
Excitement ran high. The French people had 
no love for England, and they encouraged 
Marchand to remain where he was. The 
English newspapers demanded that he be 
withdrawn. Germany, which had already be- 
gun its campaign to wrest from England the 
leading place on the ocean, was delighted at the 

Germany prospect of a war between France and the 

encourages ^ 

France British. The German diplomats patted France 
on the back, and practically assured her of 
German help in case it came to a war with 
England. 



The Map of Europe 181 

Germany now felt that she had nothing more 
to fear from France. The French population 
was not increasing, while Germany was steadily 
growing in numbers. It was England whom 
Germany saw across her path toward control 
of the sea. 

There was a man in France, however, who 
had no thought of making up with Germany. 
The memory of the war of 1870 and of the lost 
provinces of Alsace and Lorraine was very 
strong with him. This was Theophile Delcasse, 
a little man with a large head and a great brain. 
He refused to be tempted by the offers of 
German help, thinking that England, with its 
free government, was a much better friend for Delcasse 
the republic than the military empire of Ger- 25®^f^^^ 

many could be. Germany 

Just when the trouble was at its height, 
the English ambassador came to see Mr. Del- 
casse, who at that time was in charge of the 
French foreign office. He had in his pocket 
an ultimatum, that is to say, a final notice to 
France that she must give in or England would 
declare war on her. As he walked into Del- 
casse's presence, he began fumbling with the 
top button of his coat. '^ Don't touch that 
button," said Delcasse quickly. ''Drop your 
hand. You have something in your pocket 
which must not be taken out. It is a threat, 



182 



The Story of 



English 
gratitude 



A diplo- 
matic king 



and if I see it, France will fight. Sit down. 
Let us talk this matter over coolly. Matters 
will adjust themselves all right in the end." 
And they did. Delcasse was finally able to 
quiet the French people, to recall Marchand 
from Fashoda and to persuade France to 
refuse the offer of German friendship. England 
was given a free hand in Egypt, without any 
interference from the French. Naturally the 
English were very grateful to Delcasse for hav- 
ing refused to profit by German help and declare 
war. In return for the French agreement to 
stay out of Egypt, the English promised to help 
France get control of Morocco. 

Very soon after this. Queen Victoria of Eng- 
land died, and her son, Edward VII, became 
king. He had spent a great deal of time in 
France, and was very fond of the French and was 
popular with them. He saw the growing power 
of Germany, and knew that England could not 
afford to be without a friend in Europe. He 
did his best to bring about a feeling of friend- 
ship between the EngUsh and the French, and 
was very successful in doing so. He made 
frequent visits to France, where he was received 
with great cordiality. In return the English 
entertained the president of France in London 
in a princely fashion. French warships paid 
friendly visits to English waters, and the 



The Map of Europe 183 

sailors mingled with each other and did their 

best to understand each other's language. All 

France, and England as well, welcomed the fe^eks^the 

beginning of the "Entente Cordiale," or friendly friendship 

^ of France 
understandmg between the two nations. and Italy 

England also went out of her way to cultivate 
a friendly understanding with Italy. With the 
other nations of Europe England had no great 
friendship. Between England and Russia, 
there had been a hostile feeling for a long time, 
for the British felt that the Russians would hke 
nothing better than to stretch their empire from 
Siberia, down to include British India, or at 
least Afghanistan and Baluchistan, where the 
British were in control. 

The emperor of Germany, on the other hand, 

was planning for the future growth of the trade 

of his country. Since his coming to the throne, 

Germany had made wonderful progress in the 

direction of manufactures. She had become 

one of the leading nations of the world. One of 

her chief questions was, where to market these Germans 

goods. In 1896 the emperor paid a visit to ^^^^ ^^® 
a • 1 n^ 1 TT . trade of the 

Syria and lurkey. He was received with East 

great enthusiasm by the Turks, who were glad 

to have one strong friend among the powers of 

Europe. Soon afterwards the Germans began 

to get more and more of the trade of the 

Ottoman Empire. A German company was 




(184) 



The Map of Europe 185 

given permission by the Turks to build a rail- 
road across Turkey to the Persian Gulf through 
Bagdad. German railways ran through Aus- ^^® 
tria-Hungary, which was Germany's ally, to railway 
Constantinople and Salonika, the two greatest 
ports of Turkey in Europe. This short over- 
land route to Persia was looked upon with sus- 
picion and distrust by the English, whose ships 
up to this time had carried on almost all of 
Europe's commerce with India and the neigh- 
boring countries. 

Germany was reaching out for colonies. She 

secured land on the west coast of Africa and ^ 

Germany 

on the east as well. A tract of land in the corner on the sea 
of the Gulf of Guinea also fell to her share. 
Islands in the Pacific Ocean were seized. Her 
foreign trade was growing by leaps and bounds, 
and she threatened to take away from England 
a great deal of the latter's commerce. 

The German emperor announced that he 
must always be consulted whenever any changes 
of territory took place, no matter in what part 
of the earth. Therefore in 1905 when France, 
with the help of Great Britain and Spain, told 
the sultan of Morocco that he had to behave 
himself, the German emperor in person made 
a visit to Morocco and assured the sultan 
that he didn't have to pay any attention to 
France. 



186 



The Story of 



The 

Algeciras 

incident 



There was a great deal of excitement over this 
incident, and a meeting was held at Algeciras, 
Spain, where representatives of all the great 
powers came together. In the end, France and 
England were upheld, for even Italy, Germany's 
ally, voted against the Germans. On the other 
hand, Delcasse, the Frenchman who settled 
the Fashoda trouble, was compelled to resign 
his position as minister of foreign affairs 
because the Germans objected to him, and 
the French felt that Germany had humiliated 
them. 

In 1908, the ''young Turk" party in Constan- 
tinople (the party which stood for progress and 
for more popular government) drove the old 
sultan off his throne, and announced that there 
should be a Turkish parliament, or congress, to 
which all parts of the empire should send 
representatives. 

You will remember that two counties of 
the Turkish empire, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 
had been turned over to Austria to rule by the 
Congress of Berhn in 1878. Austria at the 
time solemnly promised that she would never 
try to annex these provinces. In 1908, how- 
ever, she forgot all about her promise. When 
Promises Bosnia and Herzegovina wanted to elect men to 

do not bind represent them in the new Turkish parhament, 

diplomats ^ 

and kings Austria calmly told them that after this thev 



The 

Bosnian 

trouble 



The Map of Europe 187 

should consider themselves part of the Austrian 
Empire, that they belonged to Turkey no 
longer. 

The two provinces were inhabited largely 
by Serbs, and all Serbia had looked forward to 
the day when they should once more be joined 
to herself. These states, like Montenegro, had 
been part of the ancient kingdom of Serbia. As 
long as they were in dispute between Austria 
and Turkey, Serbia had hopes of regaining 
them, but when Austria thus forcibly annexed 
them, it seemed to the Serbs that they were 
lost forever. 

Serbia appealed to Russia, for as was said, 

all the Slavic states look upon Russia as their , 

^ An appeal 

big brother. The Russians were highly indig- to Russia 
nant at this breaking of her promises by Aus- 
tria, and the czar talked of war. His generals 
and war ministers, however, dissuaded him. 
''Oh, no, your majesty," said they, "we are 
in no shape to fight Austria and Germany. 
Our army was badly disorganized in the Jap- 
anese war three years ago, and we shall not be 
ready for another fight for some time to come." 
Russia protested, but the German emperor 
notified her that he stood by Austria, and asked 
Russia if she was ready to fight. Russia and xheDuai 
France were not ready, and so they were Alliance is 

-^ ' -^ not ready 

obliged to back down, but did so with a bitter to fight 



188 The Story of 

feeling toward the ''central empires/' as Ger- 
many and Austria are called. 

It has already been shown that England for a 
long time had been suspicious of Russia, fearing 
that the northern power was aiming at control 
of India. Of late this hostile feeling had been 
dying out, especially as the friendship between 
France and Great Britain grew stronger. It 
was impossible for Russia, France's partner in 
the Dual AUiance, to remain unfriendly to 
England, France's ally in the ''Entente Cor- 
diale." Both England and Russia felt that the 
growth of Germany and the ambition of her war 
chiefs threatened them more than they had 
ever threatened each other. 

In 1907 Russia and England reached an 

and^Rifssia Understanding by which they marked off two 

compose great parts of Persia for trading purposes, each 

differences agreeing to stay in her own portion, and not 

disturb the traders of the other country in 

theirs. After this Russia, England, and France 

were usually found acting together in European 

diplomacy, under the name of the "Triple 

Entente." The "balance of power" had been 

leaning toward Germany and her allies, but 

the English navy, added to the scales on the 

other side, more than balanced the advantage 

in land forces of the Triple Alliance. 

Three years later, Morocco again gave 



The Map of Europe 189 

trouble, and France, with England's backing 
and Spain's friendship, sent her troops among 
the Moors to enforce law and order. Any one 
could see that with Tunis and Algeria alread}- 
in French hands, it was only a question of a 
little while before Morocco would be theirs also. 

This time Germany rushed her warship 
Panther to the Moorish port of Agadir. This ^^.^ 
was a threat against France, and the French at Agadir 
appealed to England to know whether they 
could look to her for support. Russia was now 
in much better shape for war than she had been 
three years before, and notified France that she 
was ready to give her support. Therefore, when 
Mr. Lloyd-George, the little Welshman who was 
really the leader of the British government, 
stood up in his place in the English parliament 
and told the world that ''to the last ship, the 
last man, the last penny," England would 
support France, it was plain that somebody 
would have to back down or else start a tre- 
mendous European war. 

It was now Germany's turn to give way. 
Strong as she was, she did not propose to fight Germany 
France, Russia, and England combined. So, backdown 
although the French gave Germany a few square 
miles of land in central Africa in return for the 
Kaiser's agreement to let France have her way 
in Morocco, the result was a backdown for 



190 The Story of 

Germany, and it left scars which would not 
heal. 

During all this period from 1898 to 1914 
there were incidents happening, any one of 
which might have started the world war. 
Fashoda, Algeciras, Bosnia, Agadir — each time 
it seemed as if only a miracle could avert the 
conflict. Europe was like a powder magazine. 
No man knew when the spark might fall that 
would bring on the explosion. 

Questions for Review 

(a) What were the plans of the English regarding Africa? 
(6) How flid Major Marchand threaten the peace of 
Europe? 

(c) Why was Germany ready to help France? 

(d) Why did Delcasse desire to keep peace with England? 

(e) W^hy was England suspicious of Russia? 

(/) Why did Germany cultivate the friendship of the 
Turks? 

(g) Why did not the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina 
by Austria start a general European war? 

(h) Why did England and Russia become friendly? 

(0 Why did not the Agadir incident bring about a war? 



Chapter XV 
THE SOWING OF THE DRAGON'S TEETH 

The growth of German trade. — Balkan hatreds. — The 
wonderful alhance against Turkey. — The sympathies of the 
big nations. — Their interference and its results. — A new 
kingdom. — The second war. — The work of diplomacy. — 
The wrongs and grievances of Bulgaria. 

Germany's position in Europe was not 
favorable to her trade. Her ships, in order 
to carry on commerce with the peoples of the 
Mediterranean, had to go a great deal farther 
than those of France or England. As a result, Germany 
the Germans had been looking toward Con- ?"^^^^^.t^ 
stantinople and southwestern Asia as the part East 
of the world with which their commerce ought 
to grow. It was Germany's plan to control 
the Balkan countries and thus have a solid strip 
of territory, including Germany, Austria, the 
Balkan states, and Turkey through which her 
trade might pass to Asia Minor, Persia, and 
India. 

The feelings of the Balkan peoples for each 
other has already been explained. The Bul- 
garians hated the Serbians, with whom they had 
fought a bloody war in 1885. The Serbians 
despised the Bulgarians. The Albanians had hatreds 

191 



192 



The Story of 




The Map of Europe 193 

no love for either nation, while the Greeks 
looked down on all the others. Montenegro 
and Serbia were friends, naturally, since they 
were inhabited by the same kind of people and 
had once been parts of the original kingdom of 
Serbia. 

Bulgaria in 1909 announced to the world 
that she would pay no more tribute to Turkey, 
and after this was to be counted one of the 
independent nations of Europe. The Bui- Bulgaria 
garians had grown so strong and the Turks p^y^^^jbute 
so weak, that Turkey did not dare go to war, to Turkey 
so permitted the matter to go unnoticed. The 
only thing on which all the Balkan nations and 
Greece could agree was their bitter hatred of 
the Turks, who had oppressed and wronged 
them cruelly for the last three hundred and fifty 
years. 

Russia, always plotting to overthrow Turkey, 
at last accomplished a wonderful bit of diplo- 
macy. She encouraged Bulgaria, Serbia, Mon- 
tenegro, and Greece to forget their old time 
disUke of each other, for the time being, and 
declare war jointly on Turkey. In order that g^fj^^^^ 
there should not be any quarrehng over the Alliance 
spoils when the war was over, the four little 
nations agreed, in a secret treaty, that when 
they got through with Turkey, they would 
divide up the carcass as shown in the opposite 



194 



The Story of 



map. The head, including Constantinople, 
was to be left for Russia, of course. Bulgaria 
was to take the back and the great part of the 
body, Greece was to annex the drumsticks and 
the second joint. The rest of the body was to 
go to Serbia with the exception of the very tail, 
including the city of Scutari, which was to be 
given to Montenegro. Serbia was at last to 
have a seacoast and a chance to trade with other 
nations than Austria. The Serbs had a grudge 
against the Austrians, for the latter, taking 
advantage of the fact that all Serbian trade with 
Europe had to go through their country, had 
charged them exorbitant prices for manufac- 
tured goods and paid them very little for their 
own products in return. Bulgaria was to have 
Kavala (ka va'la) as a seaport on the Aegean 
and all the coast of that sea as far as the Gallipoli 
(gal I'po h) peninsula. Greece was to have 
the important city of Salonika (saloni'ka), 
southern Macedonia, and southern Albania. 
With this secret agreement between them, the 
four little states went to war with Turkey. 
In accordance with the new friendship sprung 
up between Germany and the Ottomans, 
German officers and generals were sent to Con- 
stantinople to drill the Turkish troops. Can- 
non and machine guns were sent them from 
German factories, and their rifles were fed with 



The Map of Europe 195 

German bullets. The four little countries, 
accordingly, turned to France and Russia for 
assistance. Their troops were armed with 
French cannon and machine guns, and their France and 
military advisers were French and Russians, assisuhe 
While the big nations managed to keep out of ^^^^^^ 
the war themselves, all were strongly interested 
in one side or the other. 

The result was a complete surprise to Austria 
and Germany. To their consternation and 
disgust, the four little nations made short work 
of the Turkish troops. In eight months, 
Turkey was thoroughly beaten, and the allies 
were ready to put through their program of 
dividing up the spoils. 

And now, once more, the great powers 
meddled, and by their interference laid the 
foundation for future wars and misery. Austria interven- 
and Germany saw their path to Constantinople g^^J^^ ^ * ^ 
and the east cut right in two. Their railroads, powers 
instead of passing through a series of countries 
under German control, now were to be cut 
asunder by an arm of Slavic states under Rus- Slavic 
sian protection, which would certainly stop across^ 
German progress toward Asia. Gerniany's 

^ *= _ road to the 

With the map as it had been before the war of East 
1912, there was one little strip of territory, 
called the Sanjak of Novibazar, between Serbia 
and Montenegro, which connected Turkey with 



196 



The Story of 



Austria. To be sure, this country was inhab- 
ited almost entirely by Serbians, but so long as 
it was under the military control of Austria and 
Turkey, German railway trains bound for the 
east could traverse it. Now Serbia and Monte- 
negro proposed to divide this country up 
between themselves. Serbia, by gaining her 
seaport on the Adriatic, could send her trade 
upon the water to find new markets in Italy, 
Spain, and France. 




The Italians had always wanted to control 
the Adriatic Sea. They longed for the time 
when the cities of Trieste and Pola should be 
turned over to them by Austria. The cities 
of Durazzo (du rat'zo) and Avlona on the 
Albanian coast were inhabited by many Italians, 
and Italy had always cherished the hope that 
they might belong to her. Therefore, the 



The Map of Europe 197 

Italians did not take kindly to the Serbian 
program of seizing this coast. At any rate, 
as soon as the four little countries announced 
their intention of dividing up Turkey in Europe 
among themselves, Austria, Germany, and 
Italy raised a great clamor. 

Another meeting of representatives of the 
great powers was held, and once more the Another 

. king-made 

Germans were able to carry their point. Instead map 
of allowing the four Uttle countries to divide up 
the conquered land between them, the powers 
made a fifth small country, the kingdom of 
Albania, and brought down from Germany a 
little prince to rule over these wild mountain- 
eers. Notice that the Albanians were not 
consulted. The great powers simply took a 
map, drew a certain hne on it and said, ''This 
shall be the kingdom of Albania, and its king 
shall be Prince William of Wied." Again we . 

A new 

have a kmg-made map with the usual trail of kingdom 
grievances. 

This arrangement robbed Montenegro of 
Scutari, robbed Serbia of its seaport on the 
Adriatic, and robbed Greece of the country west 
of Janina (ya ni'na) . France and Russia did j^^ victors 
not like this program, but they did not feel are robbed 
like fighting the Triple Alliance to prevent its spoils 
being put into effect. 

The three little countries, separated from a 



198 



The Story of 




The Map of Europe 199 

great part of their new territory, now turned to 

Bulgaria, and, practically, said to her, ''Since 

we have been robbed of Albania, we will have 

to divide up all over again. You must give 

us part of your plunder in order to 'make 

it square.'" Now was the time for the ancient ^.".^}^ 

division 

ill-feeling between the Bulgarians and their demanded 
neighbors to show itself. In reply to this 
invitation, Bulgaria said, in so many words, 
''Not a bit of it. Our armies bore the brunt of 
the fight. It was really we who conquered 
Turkey. Your little armies had a very insig- 
nificant part in the war. If you want any more 

land, we dare you to come and take it." "All Overcon- 

. . fident 

right, we will!" cried the three little nations, Bulgaria 

and they promptly declared war on their 

recent ally. 

This quarrel, of course, was exactly what 

Germany and Austria wanted. It accomplished 

their purpose of breaking up this Balkan alliance 

under the protection of Russia. So with 

Austria and Germany egging on Bulgaria, 

and Russia and France doing their best to Austria 

induce Bulgaria to be reasonable and surrender ^^^^\ 

Russia 

some land to Greece and Serbia, the second loses 
Balkan war began in 1913 almost before the last 
cannon discharged in the first war had cooled. 
Again,Europe was astonished, for the victorious 
Bulgarians, who had been mainly responsible 



200 



The Story of 



Again 
Austria 
backs 
the loser 



A source 
of future 
trouble 



for the defeat of the Turks, went down to defeat 
before the Serbians and Greeks on the bloody 
field of Koumanova (koo ma/no va) . To add to 
Bulgaria's troubles, the Turks, taking advantage 
of the discord among their late opponents, 
suddenly attacked the Bulgarians in the rear 
and stole back the city of Adrianople, which had 
cost the Bulgarians so much trouble to capture. 

In the meantime, Roumania, which up to this 
point had had no part in any of the fighting, 
saw all of her neighbors growing larger at the 
expense of Turkey. The Roumanian states- 
men, asking what was to be their share of the 
spoils, and moved simply by a greedy desire to 
enlarge their kingdom, declared war on Bul- 
garia also. 

Poor Bulgaria, fighting five nations at once, 
had to buy peace at the best price she could 
make. She bought off Roumania by gi\dng 
to her a strip of land in the country called the 
Dobrudja (do brood ^j a) between the Danube 
River and the Black Sea. She had to agree 
to a new boundar\^ line with Turke}^ by which 
the Turks kept Adrianople. She had to give 
Kavala and the surrounding country to Greece 
and the territory around Monastir (mo na stirO 
to Serbia, although these districts were inhab- 
ited largely by her own people. 

Bulgaria had in vain appealed to her ancient 



III 



The Map of Europe 201 

friend and protector, Russia. The Russians 
were disgusted to think that the Bulgarians had 
refused to hsten to them when they urged her 
to grant some small pieces of land to Greece and 
Serbia at the close of the first war. They felt 
that the Bulgarians had been headstrong and 
richly deserved what the}^ got. Therefore, 
Russia refused to interfere now and save Bul- 
garia from humiliation. In the end, Austrian ^he end 
diplomacy had accomplished a great deal of of Russia's 
mischief. The Balkan alliance under the pro- Alliance 
tection of Russia was badly broken up. The 
old hostility between Serbia and Bulgaria, 
which had been buried for the time being 
during the first Balkan war, now broke out with 
greater force than ever. Bulgaria sulked, 
feeling revengeful against all of her neighbors, 
but especially angry at Russia, who had always 
been her friend before. 

Questions for Review 

(a) Why did the Germans desire a road to the east? 
(6) What was the one thing on which the Balkan nations 
were united? 

(c) What was Russia's purpose in helping to form the Bal- 
kan Alliance? 

(d) Why did the great powers interfere to prevent the four 
little countries from carrying out their secret agreement? 

(e) What was the cause of the second Balkan war? 

(/) Which powers were glad and which were sorry to see it 
begin? 

(g) Why was Bulgaria angry with all her neighbors? 







(202) 



Chapter XVI 
WHO PROFITS? 

The race for power on the sea. — The "naval hoUday" 
dechned. — The decHning birth-rate, — The growth of the 
SociaUsts. — The mihtarists of Germany, France, and Russia. 
— How wars cure labor troubles. — The forces behind the 
war game. — Profits and press agents. — The bankers. 

Let us turn back to the great powers of 

Europe. We spoke of their mad race, each 

nation trying to build more ships and bigger 

ships than its neighbors and to outstrip them 

in cannon and other munitions of war. The 

German navy had been growing by leaps and 

bounds. From being the sixth largest navy in 

the world, within ten years it had grown to 

second place. But, as fast as the Germans 7^® ^^^® 

... . ror power 

built ships, the English built them more rapidly on the sea 

still. England built a monstrous battleship 

called the Dreadnaught, which was twice as 

heavy as any other battleship afloat. Germany 

promptly replied by planning four ships of the 

dreadnaught class, and England came back 

with some still larger vessels which are known 

as super-dreadnaughts. naughts 

At last, the Enghsh first lord of the navy, ^^^^^^^^~ 

Mr. Winston Churchill, proposed to Germany naughts 

203 



204 



The Stonj of 



that each country take a "naval hoUday." In 
other words, he practically said to Germany, 
"If you people will stop building warships for a 
year, we will also. Than at the end of the year, 
we shall be no worse ofT or better off than we 
were at the beginning." 




SUBMARINE 



Germany laughed at this proposal. To her, 
it showed that England could not stand the 
strain very much longer. "Besides," said the 
T^e "naval Germans, "it is all very well for England to be 
declined satisfied with her present navy, which is half 
again as large as ours. If our navy were the 
strongest in the world, we too would be glad to 
have all nations stop building warships," and 
they laid down the keels of four new super- 
dreadnaughts. 

But other things disturbed the peace of mind 
of the German militarists. For a long time. 



The Map of Europe 205 

the population of France had not been increas- 
ing, while Germany almost doubled her numbers 
from 1860 to 1900. Now, to their dismay, the ^^ , „. 

' ^ ^ The falling 

German birth-rate began to grow less and they birth-rate 

saw the population of Russia growing larger by 

20% every ten years. Again, they learned that 

Russia was about to build a series of railroads 

near the German frontier which would enable 

them to rush an army to attack Germany at 

very short notice. The Germans already had . „ 

such railroads in their own country, but they railroads 

did not propose to let their neighbors have this. 

advantage also. 

Again, France had recently passed a law 
forcing every young man to put three yesirs in 
military service instead of two. This would 
increase France's standing army by 50 per cent. 
The German people, who up to this time had 
been very docile and very obedient to the 
military rule, were showing signs of discontent. 
The Socialists, a party who represented the 
working people largely, and who w^ere strongly 
opposed to war, had been growing very fast. 
In the last election, they had gained many 
representatives in the German congress, and J^^ "^® ^^ 
had cast over 4,000,000 votes. The only Socialists 
thing that kept them from having a majority 
in the Reichstag (the German congress) was 
the fact that in some districts, the voters of 



The 



206 The Story of 

the other parties combined against them. In 
this way, the mihtary class still held control 
of the German government, but it was afraid 
that it would not be for long. 

With nearly half the able-bodied men in the 
country spending their time drilling and doing 
guard duty, the other half of the population had 
to earn money enough to support their own fam- 
ilies and also the families of the men in the 

workers army. As one writer has put it, ''Every work- 
carry a _ . . . 
double load ingman in Europe carried a soldier on his back 

who reached down and took the bread out of 

his platter." 

The program of Bismarck was still in the 

minds of the military leaders of Germany. 

The dream "fhe military class must rule Prussia, Prussia 

Bismarck must rule Germany, and Germany must be 

the greatest power in Europe. To their minds, 

war between Germany and her allies and the 

rest of Europe must come. Being warriors 

by trade and ha\'ing nothing else to do, they 

saw that, if the great war were postponed much 

longer, the chances of Germany's winning 

it would grow less and less. France and 

Russia were growing stronger and Germany was 

unable to catch up to England's navy. It 

should be remembered that this class made up a 

very tiny part of the German nation. Their 

influence was all out of proportion to their 



The Map of Europe 207 

numbers. It must also be noted that there was 

a similar class in France (the Chauvinists [sho'- 

vin ists] ) who were constantly clamoring for 

revenge on Germany for the war of 1870. 

Bismarck's policy had been to crush his enemies 

one by one. He never entered a war until he 

was sure that Prussia was bound to win it. In 

like fashion, the German military chiefs of 1914 

hoped to conquer France and Russia before ^j^g p^^ns 

England was ready for the conflict. It was the ^^J.^® 

® ^ military 

old story as told by Shakespeare. ^^ Our legions class 
are brim full, our cause is ripe. The enemy 
increaseth every day. We, at the height, are 
ready to dechne." 

Russia, too, was having her troubles. After 
the czar had promised the nation a constitution 
and had agreed to allow a duma or parliament 
to be called together, the military class, who 
were trying to keep the common people under ^^^ . 
control and in ignorance as much as possible duma 
had been able to prevent the duma from obtain- 
ing any power whatsoever. It had much less 
freedom than the German Reichstag. It was 
permitted to meet and to talk, but not to pass 
laws. If any member spoke his mind freely, he 
was sent to Siberia for life. There were mur- 
murs and threats. There were labor troubles Murmurs 

of 
and strikes. The people of Russia, especially discontent 

those living in cities, were learning how little 



208 The Story of 

freedom they had, compared with citizens of 
other countries, and the time seemed ripe for a 
revolution. 

It has always been the policy of kings to take 
the minds of their people off their own wrongs 
by giving them some foreign war to think about. 
Many a king who was in danger of being driven 
from his country has been able, by declaring 
war on some other nation, to distract the minds 
of his subjects and to save his throne, through 
the pride of his people in the victories of their 
armies. So the czar probably was not sorry 
to see war clouds threatening. He hoped that 
in their anger against Germany, the Russians 
would forget their grievances against their own 
government. 

There were two other forces at work to pro- 
mote war. With so many of the men of Europe 
drilling every day, the manufacturing of wea- 
pons and equipment of armies grew to be one of 
the great industries of the world. Many of 
Europe's wealthiest citizens had their money 

profitable invested in gun-factories and powder mills. 

business j^ ^^g ^q ^]^g direct advantage of these people 

of preparing , ^ x- x- 

for war to keep up the preparation for war. They kept 
inventing newer and stronger guns, so that the 
weapons which they had sold the governments 
one year would be out of date the next, and 
ready to be thrown on the scrap heap. In this 



The Map of Europe 209 

way, their factories were kept working day and 
night, and their profits were enormous. This 
money, of course, came out of the taxes of the 
people. 

The newspapers, too, had a great deal to do 
with keeping up the war talk. It was proved in 
the German Reichstag in 1913 that the great T^e 
gun-makers of Europe had a force of hired news- gun-makers 
paper writers who were paid to keep up threats hired press 
of war. The gun-makers paid certain news- 
papers in Paris large sums to print articles to 
make the French people think that the Germans 
were just on the point of attacking them. 
These same gun-makers paid other newspapers 
in Berlin money to persuade the German people 
that the French, in their anxiety for revenge 
for the war of 1870, were just on the point of 

attacking them. Net result : As soon as France '^^^ results 

^ ^ of war- 

ordered more guns, Germany ordered still more; scares 

and thus the game went on, with taxes piling 

heavier and heavier on the common people and a 

great part of the workers of Europe either 

drilling for war or working at the destructive 

trade of manufacturing implements for killing. 

Another class of people also were interested 

in promoting w^ars. These were the great 

bankers of Europe. No nation in war can pay 

the expenses of the conflict by its own revenue. 

It is obliged to mortgage its future earnings and 



210 



The Story of 



put upon its people a debt which it will take 
hundreds of years to wipe out. The national 
debts of countries like France and England, 
which have fought many wars, are simply 
staggering. In some nations, the taxes amount 
to 25 per cent, or one-fourth of a man's income. 
When a war breaks out, the nations have to 
rush to the great bankers and seek their help. 
In prosperous times, the people have been 
depositing their money in the banks, until 
the bankers have a great surplus of gold on 
hand and cannot find a chance to invest it to 
make high rates of interest. Accordingly, 
they welcome a war, for it gives them a chance 
to lend back to the people their own money and 
charge them high rates of interest which will 
continue to be paid for years and years to 
come. These bankers, largel}^ through the 
house of Rothschild, which has branch banks in 
all of the leading European cities, are connected, 
and act together. One of the chief reasons why 
France and Germany did not go to war in 1911 
was that the bankers transferred a great store 
of gold from Berlin to Paris. They were not 
ready to have war break out at that time and 
they calmly told the German government that 
they would not lend the money. 

On the other hand war brings no gain to the 
common people. In 1899, Great Britain de- 



The Map of Europe 211 

clared war on two little Dutch republics in 
South Africa. It cost England a billion dollars 
and the lives of a hundred thousand men, and 
when the war was over, very little land had 
actually changed owners. The Dutch people 
were annexed to British South Africa, it is true, 
but they remained in possession of their own 
land and today are enjoying almost complete 
self-government . 

No citizen of Berlin is any happier or better 
off because the people of Alsace and Lorraine profits? 
are compelled to teach German in their schools 
instead of French. Even the billion dollars 
indemnity that France paid after the war of 
1870 was not spent for the benefit of the German 
people. It was hoarded in a great war chest 
to defray the expenses of the next conflict. 

Questions for Review 

(a) Why did Germany decline to take a "naval holiday"? 

(6) What is meant by "strategic railroads?" 

(c) Why were the military leaders alarmed at the growth 
of the Socialist Party? 

{d) W^hy could a few men in each country control it? 

(e) What was the situation in Russia regarding popular 
government? 

(/) Why are kings sometimes glad to have wars break out? 

{g) Was the influence of European newspapers on the side 
of peace or war? Why? 

{h) Were the bankers on the side of peace or war? Why? 

{i) How does the individual citizen prosper if his govern- 
ment wins a war? 



Chapter XVII 

THE SPARK THAT EXPLODED 
THE MAGAZINE 

The year 1914. — England's troubles. — Plots for a "Greater 
Serbia."^ The hated archduke.— The shot whose echoes 
shook the whole world. — Austria's extreme demands. — ■ 
Russia threatens. — Frantic attempts to prevent war. — 
Mobilizing on both sides. — Germany's tiger-like spring. — 
The forts of the Vosges Mountains. — The other path to 
Paris. — The neutralit}^ of Belgium. — Belgium defends 
herself. 

The year 1914 found England involved in 
England's serious difficulties. Her parliament had voted 

many 

troubles to give home rule to Ireland. There was to be 
an Irish parliament, which would govern 
Ireland as the Irish wanted it governed. Ulster, 
a province in the northeast of Ireland, however, 
was very unhappy over this arrangement. Its 
people were largely of English and Scotch 
descent, and they were Protestants, while the 
other inhabitants of Ireland were Celts and 
Catholics.' The people of this province were so 
bitter against home rule that they actually 
imported rifles and drilled regiments, saying 
that they would start a civil war if England 
compelled them to be governed by an Irish 
parliament. 

212 



i': 



The Map of Europe 213 

There were labor troubles and strikes, also, 
in England, and threatened revolutions in 
India, where the English government was none 
too popular. Altogether, it looked as though 
England had so many troubles of her own that 
she would never dare to enter a general Euro- 
pean war. 

Meanwhile, the Serbians, unhappy over the 
loss of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria, 
were busily stirring up the people of these Plotting 
provinces to revolt. The military leaders who Greater 
really ruled Austria, were in favor of crushing Serbia 
these attempted uprisings with an iron hand. 

One of the leaders of this party, a man who 
was greatly hated by the Serbians, was the 
Archduke Franz Ferdinand, nephew of the 
emperor and heir to the throne. He finally J^fi^^®^^ 
announced that he was going in person to throne 
Sarajevo (sa ra yeVo) in Bosnia to look into 
the situation himself. The people of the city 
warned him not to come, saying that his life 
would be in danger, as he was so hated. Being 
a headstrong man of violent temper, he refused 
to listen to this advice, but insisted on going. 
His devoted wife, after doing her best to dis- 
suade him, finally refused to let him go without 
her. 

When it was known that he was really coming, 
the Serbian revolutionists laid their plans. 



A well- 



214 The Story of 

They found out just where his carriage was 
to pass, and at almost every street corner, 
they had some assassin with bomb or pistol. 

laid plot One bomb was thrown at him, but it exploded 
too soon, and he escaped. Bursting with indig- 
nation, he was threatening the mayor for his 
lax policing, when a second assassin, a nineteen 
year old boy, stepped up with a pistol and shot 
to death the archduke and his wife. 

Many people have referred to this incident as 
the cause of the great European war. As you 
have been show^n, however, this was simply the 
spark that exploded the magazine. With the 
whole situation as highly charged as it was, any 
other little spark would have been enough to set 
the war a-going. 

The Austrian government sent word to Serbia 

indignation that the crime had been traced to Serbian 
plotters, some of them in the employ of the 
government. It demanded that Serbia apol- 
ogize; also that she hunt out and punish the 
plotters at once. And because Austria did not 

Austria's trust the Serbians to hold an honest in vest i- 

extraordi- oration, she demanded that her officers should 

mary o ? 

demands sit in the Serbian courts as judges. 

Imagine a Japanese killed in San Francisco, 
and think what the United States would say if 
the Tokio government insisted that a Japanese 
judge be sent to California to try the case 



Austrian 



The Map of Europe 215 

because Japan could not trust America to give 
her justice! The Serbians, of course, were in no 
position to fight a great power like Austria- 
Hungary, and yet, weakened as they were, the}^ 
could not submit to such a demand as this. 
They agreed to all the Austrian demands except 
the one concerning the Austrian judges in 
Serbian courts. They appealed to the other 
powers to see that justice was done them. 

Russia growled ominously at Austria, where- 
upon Germany sent a sharp warning to Russia Russia 

that this was none of her affair, and that fs Serbia's 

big 
Austria and Serbia must be left to fight it out. brother 

In the meantime, Serbia offered to lay the mat- 
ter before the court of arbitration at the Hague. 
(In 1899, at the invitation of the czar of Russia, 
representatives of all the great powers of 
Europe met at the Hague to found a lasting The 
court which should decide disputes between tribunal 
nations fairly, and try to do away with wars, 
to as great an extent as possible. The court has 
several times been successful in averting 
trouble. See frontispiece.) 

Great Britain proposed that the dispute 
between Austria and Serbia should be judged by 
a court composed of representatives of France, 
England, Italy, and Germany. Austria's reply 
to the proposals of England and Serbia was a 
notice to the latter country that she had just 



216 



The Story of 



striving 
to avert 
war 



The slow- 
moving 
Russians 



Germany's 

wonderful 

machinery 



forty-eight hours in which to give in com- 
pletely to the Austrian demands. In the mean- 
time, Mr. Sazanoff, the Russian minister of 
foreign affairs, was vainly pleading with England 
to declare what she would do in case the Triple 
Alliance started a war with France and Russia. 
Kings and ministers telegraphed frantically, 
trying to prevent the threatened conflict. 
The story was sent out by Germany that Russia 
was gathering her troops, mobilizing them, as 
it is called. As Russia has so much more 
territory to draw from than any other country, 
and as her railroads are not many and are poorly 
served, it was figured that it would be six weeks 
before the Russian army would be ready to 
fight anybody. Germany, on the other hand, 
with her wonderful system of government- 
owned railroads, and the machine-like organ- 
ization of her army, could launch her forces 
across the frontier at two days' notice. As soon 
as the Germans began to hear that the Russians 
were mobilizing their troops against Austria, 
Germany set in motion the rapid machinery for 
gathering her own army. She sent a sharp 
message to Russia, warning the latter that she 
must instantly stop mobilizing or Germany 
would declare war. Next the Germans asked 
France what she intended to do in case Germany 
and Austria declared war on Russia. France 



The Map of Europe 217 

replied that she would act in accordance with 
what seemed to be her best interests. This 
answer did not seem very reassurina- and with- ^, 

... *^ ^' The spring 

out any declaration of war, the German army of a tiger 
rushed for the French frontier. 

Now ever since the war of 1870, France had 
been building a line of great forts across the 
narrow stretch of ground where her territory 
approached that of Germany. Belfort, Toul, ^f^taHL 
Epinal, Verdun, Longwy, they ranged through man-made 
the mountains northeast of France as guardians natural 
of their country against another German attack. 
To rush an army into France over this rough 
country and between these great fortresses was 
impossible. Modern armies carry great guns 
with them which cannot climb steep grades. 
Therefore, if Germany wanted to strike a quick, 
smashing blow at France and get her armies 
back six weeks later to meet the slow-moving 
Russians, it was plain that she must seek some 
other approach than that through the Vosges 
Mountains. 

From Aix-La-Chapelle near the Rhine in 

Germany, through the northern and western The other 
f T^ 1 • path to 

part of Belgmm^ there stretches a flat plain, France 
with level roads, easy to cross. (See map, p. 
220.) Now, years before, Belgium had been 
promised by France, Prussia, and England 
that no one of them would disturb its neutrality. 




(218) 



The Map of Europe 219 

In other words it was pledged that in case 
of a war, no armed force of an}^ of these three 
nations should enter Belgian territory, nor 
should Belgium be involved in any trouble 
arising among them. In case any one of the 
nations named or in fact any other hostile force, bargain 
invaded Belgium, the signers of the treaty were ^^^^^ 
bound to rush to Belgium's aid. Belgium, Powers 
in return, had agreed to resist with her small Belgium 
army any troops which might invade her 
country. 

In spite of the fact that their nation had 
signed this treaty, the Germans started their 
rush toward France, not through the line of forts 
in the mountains, but across the gently rolling 
plain to the north. They first asked permission 
of the Belgians to pass through their country. 
On being refused, they entered Belgian territory 
just east of Liege (li ezh'). The Belgians „ , . 

*' . . Belgium' 

telegraphed their protest to Berlin. The Ger- protest 

mans replied that they were sorry but it was 
necessary for them to invade Belgium in order 
to attack France. They agreed to do no dam- 
age and to pay the Belgians for any supplies 
or food which their army might seize. The 
Belgians replied that by their treaty with 
France, England, and Germany they were 
bound on their honor to resist just such an 
invasion as this. They asked the Germans 



220 



The Story of 




The Two Routes to Paris 
• French Forts 



G E^ 



\h^ 



H 



apei/e 



.- A>C /' Luxemburg 
PARIS C^-^-^/iV-J^-^^ 

F R A N C E ^^^^.^.^.^___^_^ 

^;:^^^^^ITZERLAND^. AUSTRIA 






> \ T N 



H v. .^• 



MAP SHOWING THE TWO ROUTES FROM GERMANY 
TO PARIS 



Force 
rules 



how Germany would regard them if they were to 
permit a French army to cross Belgian terri- 
tory to take Germany by surprise. The 
Germans again said that they were sorry, but 
that if Belgium refused permission to their 
army to cross, the army would go through 
without permission. It was a dreadful decision 
that Belgium had to make, but she did not 
hesitate. She sent orders to her armies to 
resist by all means the passage of the German 
troops. The great war had begun. 



The Map of Europe 221 

Questions for Review 

(a) Why were the people of Ulster unhappy at the thought 
of home rule for Ireland? 

(b) What were the hopes of the Serbians regarding Bosnia 
and Herzegovina? 

(c) W^hy did Russia interfere, between Austria and Serbia? 

(d) Why did Russia mobilize her troops? 

(e) What was the cause of the German attack upon France? 
(/) Why did the Germans choose the road through 

Belgium? 



Chapter XVIII 



WHY ENGLAND CAME IN 



The 

"line-up" 
of nations 



The power 
of the 
workers 
in Italy 



The question of Italy and England. — Italj-'s position. — 
The war with Turkey. — Italy decUnes to join her allies. — 
England is aware of the German plans. — The treaty with 
Belgium. — Germany's rage at England's declaration of war. — • 
The result of militarism vs. navahsm. — The working classes 
protest, feebly. — Race hatred kept ahve by descendants of 
the feudal lords. 

France, Belgium, Russia, and Serbia were 
combined against Austria and Germany. Little 
Montenegro also rushed to the help of her neigh- 
bor and kinsman, Serbia. The question was, 
what would Italy and England do. Italy, like 
Russia and Germany, had been having trouble 
in holding down her people. A revolution had 
been threatened which would overthrow the 
king and set up a republic. The Sociahst 
Party, representing the working class, had 
been growing very strong, and one of their 
greatest principles was that all war is wrong. 
They felt that the Triple AlUance made by the 
Italian statesmen had never bound the Italian 
people. Throughout the entire peninsula, the 
Austrians were hated. 

You will remember that France had aroused 
the Italians' anger in 1881 by seizing Tunis. 

222 



The Map of Europe 223 

Italy had hoped to snap up this province for 
herself, for the Italian peninsula was crowded 
with people, and as the population increased, it 
was thought necessary that colonies be estab- 
lished to which the people could migrate to have 
more room. Finally in 1911, in order to divert 
the minds of the people from revolutionary 
thoughts, the government organized an expedi- 
tion to swoop down on Tripoli, which, like 
Egypt, was supposed to belong to Turkey. 

This meant war with the government at 
Constantinople, and Germany and Austria 
were very angry at Italy, their ally, for attack- ji^ 'j. i^ _ 
ing Turkey, with which the Austrians and Ger- Italian war 
mans were trying to estabhsh a firm friendship. 
However, '^ self-preservation is the first law of 
nature," and the Italian king and nobles valued 
their leadership in the nation much more than 
they dreaded the dislike of Germany and 
Austria. 

The Germans had counted on Italy to join in 

the attack on Russia and France, but the Italian 

statesmen knew the feehngs of their people too 

well to attempt this. Of late years, there had 

been growing up a friendship between the people The 

of Italy and those of France, and the Italian f^endship 

generals knew that it would be a difficult task ?^^*,^®^", 
^ Italy and 

to induce their men to fire upon their kinsmen France 
from across the Alps. Therefore, when Austria 



224 The Story of 

and Germany demanded their support in the 

war, they rephed by pointing out that the terms 

of the Triple Alhance bound Italy to go to their 

help only if they were attached. ^^In this case," 

said the Italians, '^you are the attacking party. 

The treaty does not bind us to support you in 

^t^^y , any war of conquest. What is more, we were 

abandons "^ ^ 

Germany not consulted before Austria sent to Serbia her 
impossible demands. Expect no help from us." 
Now the great question arose as to England. 
The EngHsh statesmen were not blind to the 
German plan. They saw that Germany in- 
tended to crush France first, capturing Paris 
and dealing the French army such an over- 
whelming blow that it would take it a long time 

to recover. Then the German armies were to be 
The well- 
planned rushed back over their marvelous system of gov- 

the^'^^"^ ° ernment-owned railroads to meet the on-coming 

German tide of Russians, 
military 

chiefs The Germans knew that they were well pro- 

vided with ammunition and all war supplies. 
They knew that they had invented some won- 
derful guns which were large enough to batter 
down the strongest forts in the world. They 
did not have very much respect for the abilit}^ 
of the Russian generals. They had watched 
them bungle badly in the Japanese war, ten 
years before. If once France were brought 
to her knees, they did not fear Russia. Then 



The Map of Europe 225 

after France and Russia had been beaten, 
there would be plenty of time, later on, to settle 
with Great Britain. 

The Enghsh statesmen, as we have said, 
were aware of this plan. They saw that if 
they were to fight Germany, this was the ideal 
time. However, Great Britain, having a gov- 
ernment which is more in the hands of the 
people than even that of republican France, ^^ 
did not have the system of forcing her youns; "Military 

.... . ^ » compulsion 

men to do mihtary service. Her little army in England 

was made up entirely of men who enhsted in 

it because they wished to, and because they 

received fair pay. If England were to enter a 

great war with Germany, there must be some 

very good reason for her doing so. Otherwise, 

her people, who really did not hate the Germans, 

would never enlist to fight against them. The 

question was, would anything happen to make 

the English people feel that they were justified 

in entering the war on the side of France and 

Russia. 

You will remember that England, France, 
and Prussia had promised each other to protect 
Belgium from war. Even in the war of 1870, 
France and Prussia had carefully avoided 
bringing their troops upon Belgian soil. Now, 
however, with the German army invading 
Belgium, the Enghsh statesmen had to decide 



England 
decides 



Where the 
German 
leaders 
miscal- 
culated 



226 The Story of 

their course. As heads of one of the nations to 
guarantee Belgium's freedom, they called on 
Germany to explain this unprovoked invasion. 
The Germans made no answer. They were 
busily attacking the city of Liege. Great 
Britain gave Germany twenty-four hours in 
which to withdraw her troops from Belgium. 
At the end of this time, with Germany paying 
no attention still, England solemnly declared 
war and took her stand alongside of Russia 
and France. 

The Germans were furious. They had no bit- 
ter feeling against the French. They realized 
that France was obliged, by the terms of her 
alliance, to stand by Russia, but they had con- 
fidently counted on keeping England out of the 
war. In fact, the German ambassador to 
England had assured the German emperor that 
England had so many troubles, with her upris- 
ing in Ireland and threatened rebellions in India 
and South Africa that she would never dare fight 
at this time. It seemed to the Germans that 
the English had deliberately misled them, 
drawing them into a trap and then attacking 
them when they were already engaged in a Hfe 
and death struggle with two other strong 
antagonists. As a matter of fact, it was a case 
of '^pot and kettle," — the pot was calhng the 
kettle black. England was doing to Germany 



The Map of Europe 227 

exactly what Germany would have liked to do 
to England if the circumstances had been the 
other w^ay. 

England and Germany were two proud, 
headstrong nations, each thinking herself the 
greatest power in the world. With this un- ^j^^j^^^ 
Christian sentiment in the hearts of their with pride 
leaders, they were bound to clash sooner or 
later, as long as the military classes in each 
country held control of the government. 

In England, there was some protest against 
the war on the part of the Labor Party. They 
felt that both they and the German working- 
men had everything to lose and nothing to gain l^^^^^^^^^ 
by fighting, and that if the laboring men in both workers 
countries refused to fight there would be no 
war. Two of the representatives of the Labor 
Party in parhament, Mr. Hardie and Mr. 
MacDonald, opposed the military program. 
They were promptly denounced as ''traitors" 
by the war-chiefs, and the majority of average 
citizens took up the same cry, which was echoed 
in the newspapers. One sincere lover of peace 
and of his fellow men, Lord Morley, had the 
courage to resign his place in the English 
cabinet rather than support war. John Burns, 
the Labor leader, did the same. These were 
rare exceptions. The great mass of the British 
people believed, as their newspapers told them, 



228 



The Story of 



What the 
Germans 
believe 



The 

common 
people not 
to blame 



that war was necessary and that the hfe of the 
British Empire was at stake. 

Could the common people in the two countries 
have gotten together and come to understand 
each other, the situation might have been 
different. But in Germany, the protests against 
war were still more feeble. The newspapers, 
with few exceptions, as was previously pointed 
out, were under the control of the mihtary 
leaders and the manufacturers of war materials. 
These papers persuaded the German people 
that England, through her jealousy of Ger- 
many's great growth in trade, had egged on 
Russia, France, and Serbia to attack Germany 
and Austria, and then had declared war herself 
on a flimsy pretext. The entire German nation 
believes this. They think, as their war chiefs 
tell them, that the war was thrust upon Ger- 
many by her enemies, just as the English 
people believe that Germany forced the war 
upon them. 

As a matter of fact, the people in each country 
who really would profit by the war, and who 
were not sorry to see it start, comprised a mere 
handful in comparison to the people who had 
nothing to gain from the war. The average 
German and the average Frenchman could meet, 
and, after talking to each other as best they 
could, owing to their differences in language, 



The Map of Europe 229 

could part company, each agreeing that the 
other was a very good fellow. The Italian 
and the Austrian can meet in America and find 
things to admire and respect in each other's 
qualities. Even the Serb and the Bulgar, 
transplanted to this country, as they learn 
to know each other, have become warm friends. 

The spirit of race hatred has been kept alive in 
the first place by ignorance. The common 
people of Russia do not know the people of the j^^^^ 
same class in Germany, but each believes the hatred kept 
other to be brutal and unlovely. It was the ignorance 
same thing in the United States before the Civil 
War. The Yankee and the Southerner did not 
know each other, but each beheved the other 
capable of the meanest acts, and not worth 
knowing. Since the war, as northern people Yankee 
have gone to live among the southerners and Southerner 
vice versa, each section has come to appreciate 
and admire the virtues of the other. As 
Senator Lamar of Mississippi said, in the 
United States Senate, at the time of the death 
of Charles Sumner, the great opponent of 
slavery, ''My countrymen, learn to know one 
another, and you will love one another." 

So again we find mihtary leaders and descend- 
ants of the old feudal nobles able to set whole 
nations to hating each other whose people 
should have been friends. 



230 The Stonj of 



Questions for Review 

(a) Why did Italy make war on Turkey in 1911? 
(6) Why did not Italy join in the attack on France? 

(c) What was Germany's plan? 

(d) How is the English army different from those of the 
continental nations? 

(e) What reason had England for declaring war on 
Germany? 

(/) Had the Germans expected England to attack them? 
Give reasons for your answer. 

(g) W^as the war to the interest of the common people in any 
of the countries? 

(h) Why could diplomats and kings set men to fighting 
each other? 



Chapter XIX 
DIPLOMACY AND KINGLY AMBITION 

Turkey throws in her lot with the central empires. — The 
demands of Italy. — She joins the Triple Entente. — The 
retreat of the Russians. — The Balkans again. — Bulgaria's 
bargaining. — German princes on Balkan thrones. — The 
central empires bid the highest for Bulgarian support. — The 
attitude of Greece. — Roumanians hopes. 

To return to the great war. The diplomats 
of both sides made all haste to put pressure upon j^ie effort 

the governments of the countries which were not to involve 

" , ^ other 

engaged in the struggle, in order to win them nations 

over. Germany and Austria worked hard with 

Italy, with Turkey, and with Bulgaria. The 

Turks were the first to plunge in. The party 

headed by Enver Bey (the young minister of 

war) saw that a victory for Russia and her 

allies meant the final expulsion of the Turks 

from Europe. Only in the victory of Germany 

and Austria did this faction see any hope for 

Turkey. It was the latter part of October 

(1914) when Turkish warships, without any 

provocation, sailed into some Russian ports on plunges in 

the Black Sea and blazed away with their big 

guns. 

Some of the older Turkish statesmen were 

terrified, and did their best to get the govern- 

231 



232 The Story of 

ment at Constantinople to disclaim all respon- 
sibility for this act of their naval commanders. 
The ''Young Turks," however, were all for war 
on the side of Germany. What is more, 
Russia, always anxious for an excuse to seize 
Constantinople, would not allow the Turks 
to apologize for their act and keep out of trouble. 
She declared war on Turkey, and was quickly 
followed by France and England. 

Both sides now set to work on Italy. It was 

plain that all the sympathies of the ItaUan 

I^^.,. ,.. people were with France and England. The six 

Garibaldi ^ ^ ^ 

in France grandsons of Garibaldi formed an Italian regi- 
ment and volunteered for fighting on the French 
lines. Two of them were killed, and at their 
funerals in Rome, nearly all the inhabitants of 
the city turned out and showed plainly that 
they too would like to be fighting on the side 
of France. 

You will remember that Italy wanted very 
much to gain the provinces of Trentino and 
Istria, with the cities of Trent, Trieste (tri es'te) , 
Pola (po'la), and Fiume (fe u'me), all inhabited 
by Italian people. The possession of these 
counties and cities by Austria had been the 
greatest source of trouble between the two 

Who will ° 

bid highest nations. Italy now came out boldly, and 
demanded, as the price of her keeping out of 
the war, that Austria give to her this land 



The Map of Europe 233 

inhabited by Italians. Germany urged Aus- 
tria to do this, and sent as her special ambassa- 
dor, to keep Italy from joining her enemies. 
Prince von Bulow, whose wife was an Italian __ _ , 

' Von Bulow 

lady, and who was very popular with the in Italy 
Italian statesmen. 

For months, von Bulow argued and pleaded, 
first trying to induce Italy to accept a small part 
of the disputed territory and then, when he 
found this impossible, doing his best to induce 
Austria to give it all. Austria was stubborn. 
She did not take kindly to the plan of giving 
away her cities. She offered to cede some 
territory if Italy should wait until the end of 
the war. 

This did not satisfy Italy. She was by no 
means certain that Austria and Germany were ^ ^^^ .^ 
going to win the war and was even less sure that the hand- 
Austria would be wiUing, in case of her victory, 
to give up a foot of territory. It seemed to 
the Italian statesmen that it was '^now or 
never" if Italy wished to get within her kingdom 
all of her own people. In the month of May 
1915 Italy threw herself into the struggle 
by declaring war on Austria and entering 
an alliance with Russia, France, and Eng- 
land. 

Meanwhile, the Russians were having difficul- 
ties. They had millions and millions of men, 




(234) 



The Map of Europe 235 

but not enough rifles to equip them all. They 

had plenty of food but very little ammunition 

for their cannon. Austria and Germany, on 

the other hand, had been manufacturing shot 

and shells in enormous quantities, and from the 

month of May, when the Russians had crossed 

the Carpathian Mountains and were threatening 

to pour down on Buda-Pest and Vienna, they 

drove them steadily back until the first of The great 

Russian 
October, forcing them to retreat nearly three retreat 

hundred miles. 

In the meantime, the Balkans again became 
the seat of trouble. You will recall that 
Bulgaria, who had grown proud because of her 
victory over Turkey in the war of 1912, was too. 
grasping when it came to a division of the con- 
quered territory. Thus she brought on a 
second war, in the course of which Greece and 
Serbia defeated her, while Roumania took a 
slice of her territory and the Turks recaptured 
the city of Adrianople. The czar of Russia had „ , . , 

*^. ^ . Bulgaria's 

done his best to prevent this second Balkan grievances 
war, even sending a personal telegram to Czar 
Ferdinand of Bulgari'a and to King Peter of 
Serbia, begging them for the sake of the Slavic 
race, not to let their quarrels come to blows. 
Bulgaria, confident of her abihty to defeat 
Greece and Serbia, had disregarded the Rus- 
sians' pleadings, and as a result Russia did not 



236 



The Story of 



Czar 

Ferdinand 
offers his 
sword to 
the highest 
bidder 



interfere to save her when her neighbors were 
robbing her of part of the land which she had 
taken from Turkey. 

It will be recalled that Macedonia was the 
country which Bulgaria had felt most sorry to 
lose, as its inhabitants were largely Bulgarian in 
their blood, although many Greeks and Serbs 
were among them. Therefore, just as Italy 
strove by war and diplomacy to add Trentino to 
her nation, so Bulgaria now saw her chance to 
gain Macedonia from Serbia. Accordingly, she 
asked the four great powers what they would 
give her in case she entered the war on their 
side, and attacked Turkey by way of Constan- 
tinople, while the French and English were 
hammering at the forts along the Dardanelles. * 

The four powers, after much persuasion and 
brow-beating, finally induced Serbia to agree to 
give up part of Serbian Macedonia to Bulgaria. 
They further promised Bulgaria to give her the 
city of Adrianople and the territory around it 
which Turkey had reconquered. But Bulgaria 
was not easily satisfied. She wanted more than 
Serbia was willing to give ; she wanted, too, the 
port of Kavala, which Greece had taken from 
her. This the allies could not promise. 

In the meantime, Bulgaria was bargaining 

•England and France needed wheat, which Russia had in great 
quantities at her ports on the Black Sea. On the other hand France and 
England, by supplying Russia with rifles and ammunition, could strike 
a.hard blow at Germany. 



The Map of Europe 237 

with Austria, Germany, and Turkey. France, 

England, and Russia were ready to pay back 

Serbia for the loss of Macedonia, by promising 

her Bosnia and Herzegovina in case they won 

the war from Austria. In like fashion, Austria Diplomats 

and the 
and Germany promised Bulgaria some Turkish map again 

territory and also the southern part of the 

present kingdom of Serbia, in case she entered 

the war on their side. 

Now the king of Bulgaria, or the czar, as 
he prefers to call himself, is a German. (As 
these little countries won their independence 
from Turkey, they almost always called in 
foreign princes to be their kings. In this way 
it had come about that the king of Greece was 
a prince of Denmark, the king of Roumania was 
a German of the Hohenzollern family, while 
the czar of Bulgaria was a German of the Germanic 
Coburg family, the same family which has £^^^®® ®^ 
furnished England and Belgium with their thrones 
kings.) 

The Bulgarians themselves are members of 
the Greek Catholic Church, and they have a 
very high regard for the czar of Russia, as the 
head of that church. Czar Ferdinand had no 
such feeling, however. He wanted to be the 
most powerful ruler in the Balkan states, and 
it made no difference to him which side helped 
him to gain his object. 



238 



The Story of 




A BOMB-PROOP^ TRENCH IN THE WESTERN WAR FRONT 



The Map of Europe 239 

About this time, the Russians had been forced 

to retreat to a hne running south from Riga, 

on the Baltic Sea, to the northern boundary 

of Roumania. The French and Enghsh had 

been pounding at the Dardanelles for some 

months, but the stubborn resistance of the 

Turks seemed hkely to hold them out of Con- The Allies 

are 
stantmople tor a long time to come. The checked 

Italians had not been able to make much 
headway against the Austrians through the 
mountainous Alpine country where the fighting 
was taking place. In the west, the Germans 
were holding firmly against the attacks of the 
British and French. The czar of Bulgaria and 
his ministers, thinking that the German- 
Austrian-Turkish alhance could win with their 
1 1 a 1 • • . Bulgaria 

help, tlung their nation into its third war plunges in 

within four years. This happened in Octo- 
ber, 1915. 

Now at the close of the second Balkan war, 
when Serbia and Greece defeated Bulgaria, 
they made an alliance, by which each agreed to 
come to the help of the other in case either was j^^ie 
attacked by Bulgaria. Roumania, too, was ^^^^5°" 
friendly to Greece and Serbia, rather than to treaty 
Bulgaria, for the Roumanians knew that Bul- 
garia was very anxious to get back the territory 
of which Roumania had robbed her, in the 
second Balkan war. In this way, the Quadruple 



240 



The Story of 



The 

Queen of 
the Greeks 



The woes 
of Serbia 



Entente (Russia, Italy, France, and England) 
hoped that the entry of Bulgaria into the war, 
on the side of Germany and Turkey, would 
bring Greece and Roumania in on the other side. 

The Greek people were ready to rush to 
Serbia's aid and so was the Greek prime minis- 
ter. The queen of Greece, however, is a sister 
of the German emperor, and through her influ- 
ence with her husband she was able to defeat the 
plans of Venizelos (ven i zel'os), the prime min- 
ister, who was notified by the king that Greece 
would not enter the war. Venizelos accordingly 
resigned, but not until he had given permission 
to the French and English to land troops at 
Salonika, for the purpose of rushing to the help 
of Serbia. (Greece also was afraid that German 
and Austrian armies might lay waste her terri- 
tory, as they had Serbia's, before England and 
France could come to the rescue.) 

Meanwhile poor Serbia was in a desperate 
state. The two Balkan wars had drained her of 
some of her best soldiers. Twice the Austrians 
had invaded her kingdom in this war, and twice 
they had been driven out. Then came a dread- 
ful epidemic of typhus fever which was the result 
of unhealthful conditions caused by the war. 
Now the httle kingdom, attacked by the Ger- 
mans and Austrians on two sides and by the 
Bulgarians on a third, was literally fighting 



The Map of Europe 241 

with her back to the wall. She had counted on 
Greece to stand by her promise to help in case of 
an attack from Bulgaria, but we have seen how 
the German queen of Greece had been able to 
prevent this. Serbia hoped that Roumania, No help 
too, would come to her help. However, as you neighbors 
have been told, the king of Roumania is a 
German of the Hohenzollern family, a cousin 
of the emperor, and in spite of the sympathy of 
his people for Italy, France, and Serbia, he was 
able to keep them from joining in the defense 
of the Serbs. 

Now Roumania ought to include a great part 
of Bessarabia (bes a ra'bi a) , which is the near- ^^^ 
est county of Russia, and also the greater part of question 
Transylvania and Bukowina (boo ko vfna), Roumania 
which are the provinces of Austria-Hungary 
that lie nearest; for a great part of the inhabi- 
tants of these three counties are Roumanians by 
blood and language. They would like to be 
parts of the kingdom of Roumania, and Rou- 
mania would like to possess them. The Quad- 
ruple Entente would promise Roumania parts of 
Transylvania and Bukowina in case she joined 
the war on their side, while the Triple Alliance 
was ready to promise her Bessarabia. Rou- 
mania, as was said before, was originally settled 
by colonists sent out from Rome, and in the 
eleventh century a large number of people from 



242 The Story of 

the north of Italy settled there. On this 
account, Roumania looks upon Italy as her 
mother country, and it was thought that Italy's 
attack upon Austria would influence her to 
support the Entente. 

Each country wanted to be a friend of the 
winning side, in order to share in the spoils. 
In this way, whenever it looked as if the Quad- 
ruple Entente did not need her help Roumania 
was eager to offer it, at a price which seemed to 
the allies too high. When, however, the tide 
turned the other way, she lost her enthusiasm 
for the cause of her friends, fearing what the 
central empires might do to her. 

Questions for Review 

(a) What was the motive of Turkey in joining the war? 

(6) Why were the Russians not sorry to have Turkey 
declare war on them? 

(c) What were the feeUngs of the Itahan jjeople? 

{d) What were the Itahan diplomats anxious to gain? 

(e) What were the demands of Czar Ferdinand of Bulgaria 
upon the Entente powers? 

(/) Why did Bulgaria join the central empires? 

{g) Why did Greece keep out of the conflict? 

{h) What were Roumania's hopes? 



Natural 



Chapter XX 
EUROPE AS IT SHOULD BE 

Natural boundaries of natioiiS in Europe. — Peoples outside 
of the nations with whom they belong. — The mixture of 
peoples in Austria-Hungary, and Russia. — The British 
Isles. — The Balkan states. — Recent changes in the map. — 
The wrongs done by mighty nations upon their weak neighbors 
bring no happiness. 

We have several times shown you, in the 
course of this httle history, maps drawn by 
kings and marked off by diplomacy and through 
blood-shed. Let us now examine a map of boundaries 
Europe divided according to the race and lan- 
guage of its various peoples. It often happens 
that the boundaries set by nature, like seas, 
high mountains, and broad rivers, divide one 
people from another. It is natural that the 
people of Italy, for instance, hemmed in by the 
Alps to the north and by the water on all other 
sides, should grow to be like each other and come 
to talk a common language. 

In the same way, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, 
Greece, Spain, France, Great Britain, and 
Switzerland have boundaries largely set by 
nature. On this account, it is not surprising 
that the map of '^ Europe as it should be" which 
unites people of the same blood under the same 

243 



244 



The Story of 



France 
a unit 



Walloons 

and 

Flemish 



government, agrees rather closely in some places 
with the map of Europe as it is. 
. The boundaries of the kingdom of Spain and 
those of the kingdom of Portugal fit pretty 
closely the countries inhabited by Spanish and 
Portuguese peoples. 

There are a few Italians in France, also a 
few Walloons and Flemish. Otherwise France 
is largely a unit. Some of the French people 
are found in Switzerland and others in that part 
of the German Empire which was taken away 
from France after the Franco-Prussian war 
of 1870. 

The Danes are not all living in Denmark. 
A great many of them inhabit the two provinces 
of Schleswig and Holstein which were torn away 
from Denmark by Prussia in 1864. The high 
mountains of the Scandinavian peninsula sep- 
arate the Norwegians from the Swedes about as 
well as they divide the countries geographically. 

The Hollanders make a nation by themselves, 
but part of the northwestern corner of the 
German Empire is also peopled by Dutch. The 
territory around Aix-La-Chapelle, although part 
of the German Empire, is inhabited by Wal- 
loons, a Celtic people who speak a sort of 
French. Belgium, small as it is, ought properly 
to be divided into two little countries, one made 
up of Walloons, the other of the Flemish. 



The Map of Europe 245 

The German Empire does not include all of 
the Germans. A great many of these are to be 
found in Austria proper, Styria (sty'ria) , and the 
northern Tyrol (ty'rol) (western counties of the Germans 
Austrian Empire), as well as in the eastern Germany 
half of Switzerland and the edges of Bohemia. 
Germans are also to be found in parts of Hun- 
gary; and in the Baltic provinces of Russia 
there are over two million of them. 

All of the ItaUans are not in the kingdom of ^, ,. 

^ Italians not 

Italy. The Island of Corsica, which belongs to in Italy 

France, is inhabited by Italians. The province 

of Trentino (tren ti'no) (the southern half of the 

Austrian Tyrol) is inhabited almost entirely by 

Italians, as is also Istria, which includes the 

cities of Trieste, Pola, and Fiume. Certain 

islands off the coast of Dalmatia are also largely 

Italian in their population. 

The republic of Switzerland is inhabited by 

French, Italians, and Germans. Besides the 

languages of these three nations, a fourth tongue J^® 

Romansn 

is spoken there. In the valleys of the south- people 
eastern corner of Switzerland are found people 
who talk a corruption of the old Latin, which 
they call Romaunsch or Romansh. 

Austria-Hungary, as has already been said, is 
a jumble of languages and nationalities. This 
empire includes nearly a million Italians in 
its southwestern corner, and three million 



The 
mixture 
in Austria 



Discon- 
tented 
French 
and Danes 



Russia's 

many 

peoples 



246 The Story of 

Roumanians in Transylvania. It has as its 
subjects in Bosnia and Herzegovina several 
million Serbians. In Slavonia (slavo'nia), 
Croatia (cro a'tia), and Dalmatia (dalmatia), 
it has two or three miUion Slavs, who are closely 
related to the Serbians. In the north, its 
government rules over several miUion Czechs 
(checks) (Bohemians and Moravians) . who 
strongly desire to have a country of their own. 
It controls also two milhon Slovaks, cousins 
of the Czechs, who also would like their inde- 
pendence. In the county of Carniola (car ni o'- 
la), there are one and a half million Slovenes, 
another Slavic people belonging either by them- 
selves or with their cousins, the Croatians 

and Serbs. 

The German Empire includes several hundred 
thousand Frenchmen, who want to get back 
under French control, a million or two Danes, 
who want once more to belong to Denmark, and 
several million Poles, who desire to see their 
country again united. 

Russia rules over a mixture of peoples almost 
as numerous as those composing Austria- 
Hungary. The Russians themselves are not 
one people. The Red Russians or Ruthenians 
are quite different from the people of Little 
Russia, and they in turn are different from the 
people of Great Russia, to the north. The 




COUNTRY OF THE — 

1. Slovenes 

2. Romansh 

3. Germans 

4. Walloons 

5. Flemish 

6. Dutch 

7. Danes 

8. Gaels 

9. English 

10. Irish 

11. Welsh 

12. French 

13. Basques 

14. PortuQuese 

15. Spanish 

16. Italians 

17. Albanians 

18. Greeks 

19. Turks 

20. Buloars 

21. Roumanians 

22. Serbs and Croats 

23. Magyars ( Hunoarians ) 

24. Czechs ( Bohemians ) 

25. Slovaks 

26. Poles 

27. Letts and Lithuanians 

28. Russians 

29. Finns and Esthonians 

30. Lapps 

31. Swedes 

32. Norweoiant 



The Map of Europe 



247 




POLISH CHILDREN 



Baltic provinces are peopled, not by Russians, 
but by two million Germans, an equal number 
of Letts and a somewhat greater number of 
Lithuanians. North of Riga are to be found 
the Esthonians, cousins of the Finns. North- 
west of Petrograd lies Finland, whose people, 
with the Esthonians, do not belong to the 
Indo-European family, and who would dearly 
love to have a separate government of their 
own. 

You have already been told in Chapter V 
that the country of the English, if limited by S^*^°^^^" 
race, does not include Wales, Cornwall, or the British isles 
north of Scotland, but instead takes in the north- 



248 The Story of 

eastern part of Ireland and the southern half of 
the former Scottish kingdom. 

Turning to the Balkan states, we find our 
hardest task, for the reason that peoples of 
different nationalities are hopelessly mixed and 
jumbled. However, the kingdom of Bulgaria 
ought to include the territory now held by 
Roumania south of the Danube River. Parts 
of eastern and southern Serbia and portions of 
Grecian Macedonia also are largely Bulgarian 
^^® in their makeup. Transylvania, with the excep- 

mixture tion of the two little islands mentioned before 
(Chapter V) is inhabited by Roumanians. The 
southern half of the Austrian province of Buko- 
wina also ought to be part of Roumania, as 
should the greater part of the Russian state of 
Bessarabia. Whereas Roumania now has a 
population of 7,000,000, there are between five 
and six million of her people who live outside 
her present boundaries. 

The shores and islands of the Aegean Sea 
should belong to Greece. Greek people have 
inhabited them for thousands of years. The 
Albanians are a separate people, while Monte- 
negro and Bosnia should be joined to Serbia. 

Turn back to previous maps of Europe in this 

^^® . volume and you will see that most of the changes 
changing ^ ^ ° 

map that have been made of late years are bring- 

ing boundaries nearer where they should be. 



The Map of Europe 249 

You will also note that wherever there have been 
recent changes contrary to this plan, they have 
always resulted in more bloodshed. The par- 
tition of Poland, the annexation of Schleswig, 
Alsace, and Lorraine to Germany, the division 
of Bulgarian Macedonia between Serbia and 
Greece, and the seizure of Bosnia and Herze- 
govina by Austria are good examples. 

Questions for Review 

(a) What countries of Europe have fairly well-marked 
natural boundaries? 

(6) Who are the Walloons? 

(c) Who are the Romansh people? 

(d) To what other people are the Esthonians related? 




(250) 



Chapter XXI 
THE COST OF IT ALL 

What war debts mean. — The devastation of farms and 
villages. — Diseases which travel with war. — The men picked 
to die first. — The survivors and their children. — The effect 
on France of Napoleon's wars. — What Hannibal did to Rome. 
— What happened to the Franks. — Sweden before and after 
the wars of Charles XII. — Europe at the close of the Great 
War. — War's effect on the finer feelings of men. — Arbitration 
and an international court. — An opportunity for some nation. 

In the meanwhile, all the countries in the war 
were rapidly rushing toward bankruptcy. Eng- 
land spent $10,000,000 a day; France, Germany, 
and Austria nearly as much apiece. Thus 
in the course of a year, a debt of $100 was 
piled upon every man, woman, and child in the 
British kingdom. The average family consists debt 
of five persons, so that this means a debt of 
$500 per family for each year that the war 
lasted. The income of the average family 
in Great Britain is less than $500 in a year, and 
the amount of money that they can save out 
of this sum is very small. Yet the British 
people are obhged to add this tremendous 
debt to the already very large amount that 
they owe, and will have to go on paying interest 
on it for hundreds of years. 

251 



A colossal 



252 The Story of 

In the same fashion, debts piled up for 

the peoples of France, Germany, Austria, Russia 

and all the countries in the war. In spite of 

what we have said above of the average income 

of English families, Great Britain is rich when 

compared with Austria and Russia. What is 

more, Great Britain is practically unscarred, 

_ . , while on the continent great tracts of land which 
Ruin and ^ " 

devastation used to be well cultivated farms have been laid 
waste with reckless abandon. East Prussia, 
Poland, Lithuania, GaUcia, part of Hungary, 
Alsace, Serbia, Bosnia, northern France, south- 
western Austria-Hungar}^ and all of Belgium, a 
territory amounting to one-fifth of the whole of 
Europe, were scarred and burned and devas- 
tated. 

It will be years and years before these 
countries recover from the effects of war's 

Death invasion. For every man killed on the field of 

among battle, it is estimated that two people die among 
the non- ' j- r- o 

combatants the noncombatants. Children whose fathers 
are at the front, frail women trying to do the 
work of men, aged inhabitants of destroyed 
villages die by the thousands from want of 
food and shelter. 

In the trail of war come other evils. People 
do not have time to look after their health or 
even to keep clean. As a result, diseases like 
the plagues of olden times, which civilization 




(253) 



254 



The SUyry of 



Plagues 
and fevers 



The 

survival of 
the unfit 



thought it had killed, come to life again and 
destroy whole cities. The dreadful typhus 
fever killed off one-fifth of the population of 
Serbia during the winter of 1914. Cholera 
raged among the Austrian troops in the fall of 
the same year. For every soldier who is killed 
on the field of battle, three others die from 
disease or wounds or lack of proper care. 

In time of war, the first men picked are the 
very flower of the country, the strong, the 
athletic, the brave, the very sort of men who 
ought to be carefully saved as the fathers of the 
people to come. As these are killed or disabled, 
governments draw on the older men who are 
still vigorous and hardy. Then finally they call 
out the unfit, the sickly, the weak, the aged, and 
the young boys. As a general rule, the members 
of this last class make up the bulk of the men 
who survive the war. They, instead of the 
strong and healthy, become the fathers of the 
next generation of children. 

In the days of the Roman republic, 220 years 
B.C., there stood on the coast of North Africa 
a city named Carthage, which, like Rome, 
owned lands far and near. Carthage would 
have been satisfied to "live and let live," but 
Rome would not have it so. As a result, the 
two cities engaged in three terrible wars which 
ended in the destruction of Carthage. But 



The Map of Europe 255 

before Carthage was finally blotted off the map, 
her great general, Hannibal, dealt Rome a blow 
which brought her to her knees, and came very 
near destroying her completely. Five Roman beginning 
armies, averaging 30,000 men apiece, he trapped ^[^^^^^^y 
and slaughtered. The death of these 150,000 of Rome 
men was a loss from which Rome never recov- 
ered. From this time on, her citizens were 
made of poorer stuff, and the old Roman 
courage and Roman honor and Roman free 
government began to decline. 

The Germanic tribes (the Goths, Franks, 
Lombards, etc.) who swarmed into the Roman 
Empire about the year 400 a.d., although they 
were barbarians, nevertheless had many excel- 
lent qualities. They were brave, hardy men 
and stood for freedom from tyrants. How- 

The 

ever, they fought so many wars that they were fielders of 
gradually killed ofT. Take the Franks, for f^l.^""^^ 
example; the three grandsons of Charlemagne, the sword 
who had divided up his great empire, fought a 
disastrous war with one another, which ended 
in a great battle that almost wiped out the ^^^^^^^ 
Frankish nation. This happened about 840 a.d. Franks 

Sweden was once one of the great powers of 
Europe. However, about 1700 a.d., she had a 
king named Charles XII, who tried to conquer 
Russia and Poland. He was finally defeated 
at a httle town in the southern part of Russia 



256 



The Story of 



The 

downfall 
of Sweden 



The cost of 
wars of the 
past to 
France 



nearly a thousand miles away from home, and 

his great army was Aviped out. After his time, 

Sweden sank to the level of a second class 

nation. The 

bodies of her 

best men had 

been strewn on 

batt lef iel d s 

reaching from 

the Gulf of 

Bothnia to the 

Black Sea. 

For eighty 
years after the 
time of Napo- 
leon, the French 
nation showed a 
lower birth rate 
and produced 
smaller and 
weaker men 

than it had one hundred years previously. The 
reason for this is easily found. During the 
twenty-three years of terrible fighting which 
followed the execution of the king, France left 
her finest young men dead all over the face of 
Europe. They died by the thousands in Spain, 
in Italy, in Austria, in Germany, and above all, 
amidst the snows and ice of Russia. Onlv 




CHARLES XII OF SWEDEN 



The Map of Europe 257 

within the last twenty years have the French, 
through their new interest in out-of-door sports 
and athletics, begun once more to build up a 
hardy, vigorous race of young men. And now 
came this terrible war to set France back where 
she was one hundred years ago. 

Picture Europe at the close of this great war; 
the flower of her young manhood gone ; the sur- 
vivors laden with debts which will keep them in 
poverty for years to come ; trade and agriculture The fruits 

of the 

at a standstill; but worst of all, the feeling of great war 
friendship between nations, of world brother- 
hood, postponed one hundred years. Hatred 
of nation for nation is stronger than ever. 

One of the worst features of war is that it blots 
out many of the finer feelings. The different 
armies are taught that it is right and proper 
to kill their opponents and that God approves 
of this slaughter. ''God is with us," says 
the German kaiser, ''and He will punish 
England." "With the help of God," says the 
czar of Russia, "we are fighting a holy cam- 
paign against our enemies." 

This is the result of militarism, working upon 
ignorance. War breeds maUce; war breeds 
hate; war brutalizes those who take part in it. 
They become callous, and have less pity for their 
fellow men. Death and suffering are on all sides 
of them, and they lose their sense of mercy. 



258 



The Story of 



Brutality 
bred by 
war 



War 
growing 
more 
terrible 



In April, 1912, a great English steamship 
went down in the Atlantic Ocean. A thrill 
of horror went through the world. Germany 
and Austria mourned with the rest of the 
nations over England's loss. Three years 
later, another English ocean liner was sunk, 
drowning hundreds of innocent women and 
children. Thousands of the same Germans 
who had mourned in 1912, now threw up their 
caps and shouted for joy. 

German shells set on fire a French church 
used as a hospital, and many wounded German 
soldiers were burned to death. Thousands of 
EngUsh and French, who, under ordinary cir- 
cumstances would be merciful and kind, exulted 
and said, ''It served them right." 

War turns the thoughts of the best brains df a 
nation away from plans for the betterment of 
their fellow men and sets them to devising more 
fiendish methods for kiUing. The time was 
when only the men in the armies were in danger 
of losing their lives. Today, no child is sure 
that a death bomb from the sky will not drop 
upon him or a deadly torpedo sink the boat 
in which he is traveling. It was said ten years 
ago that there would never be another great war, 
because war with all of the improved methods 
of kiUing had become so terrible that no nation 
would dare engage in it. 



The Map of Europe 259 

It is probable that if Austria and Germany 
had known that England would enter the war 
they would never have pressed their impossible 
demands on Serbia. The German generals 
expected the French to take refuge in forts, as 
they had in the war of 1870, and they knew that 
no fort ever built could withstand their wonder- 
ful new guns, the existence of which had been 
kept a profound secret. Germany had con- 
fidently counted on crushing the French army 
with one quick drive, and then on returning 
with all forces to overwhelm the slow-moving 
masses of Russia. The Kaiser expected the 
war to be short, like those of 1866 and 1870. 
So did the Russians, who confidently expected 
to crush Austria easily, and then help France 
finish off Germany later on. The authors of 
the war are like those who kindle a small fire ^arfg^ 
to burn off some weeds, only to have it get away j* cannot 

^ ^ becon- 

from their control, and consume forests, fields, trolled 

and towns. 

Questions for Review 

(a) How does a nation at war increase its debts? 
(h) Why do diseases thrive in war time? 

(c) What became of the Goths and Franks? 

(d) Why was the reign of Charles XII disastrous to Sweden? 

(e) What was the effect of Napoleon's many wars upon the 
strength of the French nation? 

(/) Is war growing more humane? 



Chapter XXII 
THE CAUSES OF WAR AND A REMEDY 

The four causes of wars. — The barbarian instinct. — The 
ambition of kings. — Trade rivalry and expansion of colonies. 
— Wars which have made or preserved a nation. — A plan for 
popular vote on war. — American wealth and Mexican invest- 
ments. — William Kent's attitude. — Intelligent voters a 
safeguard against war. 

It will be recalled that in the first chapter, it 

^^^^ was stated that almost all wars could be traced 

causes 

of wars to one of the following four causes: (1) The 
fighting and plundering instinct among bar- 
barous tribes; (2) the ambition of kings to 
enlarge their domains; (3) the greed of traders 
I shown in trying to increase their commerce at 
j the expense of the merchants of some other 
' nation; (4) a people's desire for freedom from 
I foreign rulers and for national unity. 

The wars which followed the great Germanic 

The wars invasions are to be classed under the first head- 

of 

barbarism ing. The invaders themselves in the end did 

not profit by their fighting. As long as they 
stayed in their native country, they were hardy, 
healthy peoples. Transplanted to the south- 
land, they either lost their courage and valor 
and disappeared, like the Vandals, or they were 
260 



The Map of Europe 261 

killed off fighting with each other, as happened 
to the Franks. 

The Finns used to attack and plunder the 
coast of Sweden until the Swedes, in self-defense, 
organized an expedition and conquered Fin- 
land, whose people never again became inde- 
pendent. In this way, they brought their 
slavery upon themselves by their own bar- 
barous attacks on their neighbors, who otherwise 
would have been content to leave them in peace. 

The ambition of kings has been responsible 

for by far the greatest number of wars. Roman ^^ 

. . The wars 

emperors were ambitious to include the whole of ambition 
world in their empire. Wilham, Duke of 
Normandy, was ambitious to become king of 
England. His descendant Edward III was 
ambitious to become king of France as well as of 
the British Isles. The Hundred Years War was 
the result. Successive sultans of the Ottoman 
Turks were ambitious to spread their empire 
over all southern Europe. As a result, their 
subject^, as well as the peoples whom they 
attacked, have been shedding their blood for 
500 years. 

King Philip II of Spain was ambitious to 
conquer England. As a result, thousands of 
Spaniards perished in the defeat of the great 
Armada (ar ma'da) as his fleet was called. 
King Louis XIV of France was ambitious 



262 The Story of 

to rule all of western Europe. Untold suffering 
followed among the inhabitants of the valley 
of the Rhine. King Charles XII of Sweden 
wished to be lord of both Poland and Russia. 
Sweden never recovered from the terrible 
defeats given its army. Frederick the Great 
of Prussia was ambitious to enlarge his kingdom. 
He seized a province from Austria and after- 
wards helped to tear apart the unhappy king- 
dom of Poland. Wars and revolts caused by 
these two acts lasted for nearly one hundred 
years. 

Numerous czars of Russia have been am- 
bitious to extend the boundaries of their empire 
to include Finland, Poland, the Balkan states, 
and Turkey. This ambition is still alive, 
and may be responsible for as much suffering 
in the future as it has been for the past three 
hundred years. Czar Ferdinand of Bulgaria 
was ambitious to be the most powerful ruler 
in southeastern Europe. The result of this 
was the second Balkan war of 1913 and Bul- 
garia's entry into the great war two years later. 
Under the third heading, we find wars like 
those fought between Great Britain and Hol- 
of trade land two hundred and fifty years ago for the 
trade of the far east, and the wars brought on 
one hundred and fifty years ago in India 
between France and England. In like manner. 



The wars 



The Map of Europe 263 

Spain and England fought for the gold of 
America, and Turkey and Italy, only recently, 
for the opportunity to colonize Tripoli. Another 
war of this type was that in 1904 between Russia 
and Japan, both of whom were anxious for the 
trade of Manchuria and Korea. 

It is sometimes said that nations have to fight 
in order to get more territory for their crowded The alleged 
populations. It was claimed that the Japanese expansion 
needed to control Korea and Manchuria in order 
to have more room for their 40,000,000 people, 
who were crowded into a few tiny islands. 
In the same way, it was said that Germany's 
population was getting so numerous that she 
needed to fight in 1914 in order to get room to 
expand. The foolishness of this argument 
can readily be seen. Belgium has nearly six 
hundred people to the square mile, while 
Germany averages three hundred. No one 
ever suggested that Belgium needed to fight 
in order to get more territory for her inhabi- 
tants. Nor was it necessary for Japan to fight 
Russia in order to colonize her people in Man- 
churia. Japanese could have emigrated to 
the mainland whether Japan controlled that 
country or not. 

There remains the fourth reason, a desire on 
the part of a people for freedom from oppression J^^ ^^^^ 
and for national unity. Of this type was our freedom 



264 The Story of 

own war of 1776 against England. The wars 
between Italy and Austria in 1859 and 1866 
were of this kind also. The war of the four 
Balkan states against Turkey in 1912 is another 
example. This fourth class of wars would 
never have been necessary had it not been for 
the wrongs previously done by the ambition of 
kings. If the second cause were removed, the 
fourth would not exist. 

The greatest remedy for war is intelligent 
government by the people. Let all govern- 
for war ments, before declaring war, state the reason 
why they think war necessary and then allow 
their peoples to vote on the matter. Let a 
record be kept of each man's ballot, with the 
understanding that those who vote for war shall 
be the first to be drafted for the army when war 
breaks out. Let it be understood that no one 
who has voted for peace shall be forced to ser\'e 
in the army until all those who voted for war 
are already in arms. There are plenty of people 
who for their own selfish reasons would vote for 
war, if they knew that they themselves would 
never have to take their places in the trenches. 
In the early part of 1914 many American 
speculators who had money invested in mines 
and plantations in Mexico were doing their best 
to involve us in a war with that country. Their 
idea was that the value of their property would 



The Map of Europe 265 

be increased because of the security they would ^ 

^ ^ Americans 

enjoy under the government of the United in Mexico 

States. 

At that time, Congressman WilHam Kent of 

Cahfornia, who is a very wealthy man and has 

large amounts of money invested in Mexico, 

made a statement which ought to go down in 

history. After explaining that he had a great 

deal of money at stake and that he was likely to 

lose it because of internal troubles in Mexico, 

he added that he did not care enough for his 

Mexican investments to run the risk of being 

killed in the defense of the property ; nor would 

he send his son or brother to defend it. ''And ^ 

A noble 

SO," he concluded, ''I would be a coward and a sentiment 
murderer if I voted to send another man's son or 
brother to be shot in defense of my property." 
When people have learned the folly of most 
wars and have realized that no happiness ever 
came to them through wars of conquest, it will 
be impossible for kings and czars to force their 
subjects to fight. Popular government is neces- 
sary, but popular government is dangerous 
unless the people who have it are intelligent. 
The South American republics are supposed to 
be ruled by their people, but throughout the 
nineteenth century, when the ignorance of South 
Americans was even greater than that of '^^® ^®®^ 
Europeans, these countries were constantly education 



266 



The Story of 



An inter- 
national 
court of 
arbitration 



Force not 
necessity 



Be 

honorable 
and fear 
not 



embroiled in wars or revolutions. The great 
antidote, then, for war is education. 

The only solution of the problem is that 
nations disband their armies and cease building 
ships of war. An agreement will have to be 
signed by all countries to refer any disputes to a 
court composed of men from many nations. 

In 1870, Great Britain and the United States 
had a dispute which might well have led to war. 
Instead of fighting over it, however, they laid 
their trouble before a court of five men, a Swiss, 
an Italian, a Brazilian, an Englishman, and an 
American. This court, by a vote of four to one 
decided against England, and England accepted 
the decision as final, although it cost her many 
millions of dollars. 

A small fleet of vessels and a small army of 
police should be put at the service of the court 
to enforce its decisions, if necessary. 

In the meantime, in order that wars shall 
cease, some one nation or group of nations must 
take the lead in disbanding armies and ceasing 
to build warships. As long as a country has 
an army and a navy, it will also have a military 
class. Their trade is war, and they are not 
happy to remain idle. 

There is a fine old poem written nearly 2000 
years ago by the Roman poet, Horace, which 
begins 



The Map of Europe 267 

Integer vitae scelerisque purus 
Non eget Mauris jaculis nee areu 
Nee venenatis gravida sagittis 
Fusee, pharetra. 

The lesson of the poem is that any man who 
is pure of heart and at peace with his fellow men 
may wander unarmed through the world's wild- 
est places, for no evil will befall him. May we not 
hope that some nation or group of nations will 
have the courage and the confidence in the force 
of public opinion to put this ideal into practice. 

The nation (or group of nations) that does 

this, that first appeals to the justice and fairness Who will 

set the 
of her sister nations will be remembered in example 

history as greater than Persia, greater than 

Macedonia, greater than Rome, greater than 

all the conquerors of the world. 

Some time, nations will learn that other 

nations have the right to Uve, and that no 

country can wrong another through force of 

arms without suffering for it in the end. In a The rights 

of the 
blunted conscience, in the loss of the sympathy people 

of the rest of the world, in a lessening of the 

Christ-spirit of doing good to others, the nation 

which resorts to force to gratify its own selfish 

ends, like the individual, pays the full penalty 

for its misdeeds. It was a great American who 

said, ''The world is my country and mankind 

are my brothers." 



268 The Story of 

Questions for Review 

(a) What became of the barbarians who invaded the Roman 
empire? 

(6) Has the increase in size of kingdoms brought any happi- 
ness to their people? 

(c) Why did Japan and Russia fight in 1904? 

(d) Is there any nation where the people have the sole 
power of declaring war? 

(e) Why have the South American republics fought so 
many wars? 

(/) Suggest some solution for the problem of war, 

(q) What is meant by arbitration? 

(h) Why does not some one nation throw down its arms? 



PRONOUNCING GLOSSARY 

In this glossary it will be noted that as a general rule the 
EngUsh pronunciation is given for names that have become 
at all famihar in history or geography. Thus the English 
Cra'cow is given instead of the Polish Kra'koof or the German 
Krii'kau. 

On the other hand names like Koumanova or Dobrudja 
must be given as the natives of these places pronounce them, 
as there is no recognized English pronunciation. 

In certain cases where there are several current pronun- 
ciations, the author has been forced to make a selection, 
arbitrarily. Thus a seaport in Greece, which has changed 
hands recently, has no less than five names. Its Greek name 
is pronounced Thgssalonyi'ki, while other nations term it 
variously Saloni'ka, S61amk', So'lon, Saloni'ki, or Salo'nica. 

Some sounds, again, it is almost impossible for English 
speaking people to reproduce. These are indicated by 
English syllables which approximate them as nearly as 
possible. 

Not every proper noun which is used in the text will be 
found pronounced in the glossary. It is assumed that such 
names as Austria, Bismarck, etc., can hardly be mispro- 
nounced. 



Aegean (e ge'an) Arminius (ar min'i us) 

Agadir (a ga dir') Avlona (av lo'na) 

Aix-la-Chapelle (aks la sha- Baden (ba'dSn) 

pgr) Balkan (bal kan') or (bol'kan) 

Albania (al ba'n'i a) Banat (ban'at) 

Algeciras (al j6 si'ras) or (al- Basques (basks) 

j6 si'ras) Bastille (ba sfil') 

Alsace (al sas') Bavaria (ba va'ri a) 

Andrassy (an dra^'sy) Belfort (b^rfor) 

Aragon (a'ra g6n) Bernadotte (ber'na dot) 

Armada (ar ma'da) Bessarabia (b6s sa ra'bi a) or 

Armenians (ar me'ni tins) (b6s sa rJi'bi a) 
269 



270 



Pronouncing Glossary 



Bismarck-Sehonhauson (shon- 

how'z6n) 
Blenheim (blen'gm) or (blen'- 

him) 
Bohemia (bo he'mi a) 
Bonaparte (bo'na part) 
Bosnia (boz'ni a) 
Bom'bon (boor'bun) 
Brandenburg (bran'den biirg) 
Breton (bre'ton) or (brSffin) 
Bukowina (boo ko vi'na) 
Bulgaria (bul ga'ri a) 
Burgundians (bur giin'di lins) 
Burgundy (bur'gun dy) 
Byzantium (by zan'ti um) 
Caesar (sez'er) 
Carniola (cjir ni o'la) 
Carpathian (car pa'thi an) 
Carthage (ear'thag) 
Castile (eas til') 
Castlereagh (cas'l ra) 
Cavour (ca voor') 
Charlemagne (shar 16 man') 
Chauvinists (sho'vin Ists) 
Cicero (sts'e ro) 
Cimbri (sim'bri) 
Cincinnatus (sin sin nat'iis) 
Constantine (con'stSn tin) 
Cracow (cra'co) 
Crimea (cri me'a) 
Croatia (cro ii'ti a) or (cro- 

a' sha) 
Czech (ch6k) 
Dacians (da'shtins) 
Dalmatia (dal ma'shi a) 
Theophile Delcassc (ta'o fil 

d6l ca sa') 
Devonshire (dev'on shir) 
Disraeli (diz ra'll) 
Dobrudja (do brood'ja) 



Dreibund (drl'boond) 

Durazzo (du rat'zo) 

Emmanuel (em man'u 61) 

Entente Cordiale (an tjint'- 
cor dyal') 

Enver Bey (6n'ver ba') 

Epinal (ep'i nal) 

Epirus (ep I'riis) 

Erse (ers) 

Esthonians (6s tho'ni ans) 

Etruscans (e triis'cans) 

Euphrates (u fra'tez) 

P^ashoda (fa sho'da) 

Fiume (fi ii'me) 

Gaehc (ga'lic) 

Clalicia (gal I'sha) 

Gallipoli (gal i'po li) 

Garibaldi (gar i bal'di) 

Germanic (jer man'ic) 

Glamis (glSm'Is) 

Gortchakoff (gor'cha kof) 

Goths (goths) 

Granada (gra na'da) 

Hannibal (han'ni bl) 

Hanover (han'o ver) 

Hertzegovina (hart's6 go vi'- 
na) 

Hesse-Darmstadt (hes se- 
darm'stat) 

Hindustan (hin dob stan') 

Hohenzollern (ho 6n tsol'ern) 

Holstein (hol'stin) 

Illyrians (i lyr'I ans) 

Istria (Is'tri a) 

Janina (ya ni'na) 

Janus (ja'niis) 

Jutes (jilts) 

Kaiser (ki'zer) 

Kaspar (kas'par) 

Kavala (ka v:i'la) 



Pronou ncing Glossary 



271 



Khartoom (kiir tooin') 
Korea (ko re'a) 
Koiimanova (koo niil'iio va) 
Lamar (la miir') 
Leon (le'6n) 
Liege (li 6zh') 
Lithuania (llth oo a'ni a) 
Longwy (long'vy) 
Lorraine (lor ra!n') 
Macedonia (ma se do'ni a) 
Magyar (m6d'yar) 
Manchuria (man chu'ri a) 
Marathon (mar 'a thon) 
Marchand (mar shan') 
Maria Theresa (mil ri'ii ter- 

es'a) 
Marlborough (milrrbo ro) 
Marsala (mar sa'la) 
Marseillaise (mar s61 yaz') 
Mazzini (mat si'ni) 
Mesopotamia (mes o po ta'- 

mi a) 
Metternich (met'ter nikh) 
Mirabeau (mir'a bo) 
Modena (mo de'nji) or (mo'- 

da na) 
Mohammedan (mo ham'mod- 

an) 
Moltke (molt'ka) 
Monastir (mo na stir') 
Montenegrin (mon te ne'grin) 
Montenegro (mon te ne'gro) 
Moslems (moz'lfimz) 
Murat (niii'ra) 
Napoleon (na po'le on) 
Nice (nis) 
Northumberland (north lim'- 

ber land) 
Novibazar (no'vl ba ziir') 
Ostrogoths (6s'tro goths) 



Ottoman (ot'to man) 
Parma (par'ma) 
Piedmont (ped'mont) 
Pola (po'la) 
Poland (po'land) 
Pomerania (pom er a'ni a) 
Pyrenees (pir'en eez) 
Reichstag (rikhs'tagh) 
Riga (ri'ga) 
Romansh (ro mansh') 
Roon (ron) 
Roumani (roo ma'ni) 
Roumania (roo ma'ni a) 
Ruthenian (roo the'ni an) 
Sadowa (sa'do va) 
Salonika (sa'lo ni'ka) 
Sanjak (san jak') 
San Stephano (san ste fa'no) 
Saone (son) 
Sarajevo (sa ra ye'vo) 
Sardinia (sar din'i a) 
Savoy (sa voy') 
Saxony (sax'on y) 
Sazanof (sa'za noff) 
Scandinavian (scan dl na'vi- 

an) 
S(;hleswig (shles'vig) 
Scutari (skoo'ta ri) 
Serbia (ser'bl a) 
Silesia (sll e'sha) 
Skipetars (skip'e tars) 
Slavic (sla'vic) 
Slavonia (sla vo'ni a) 
Slavonic (sla von'Ic) 
Slavs (slavs) 
Slovak (slo viik') 
Slovenes (slo venz') 
. Slovenian (slo ve'ni an) 
Sobieski (so h\ es'ki) 
Strasbourg (stras'boorg) 



272 



Pronounciny Glossary 



Styria (sty'ri a) 

Suevi (swe'vl) 

Syria (syr'i a) 

Talleyrand (tal'la ran) 

Teutones (tu to'nez) 

Teutonic (tu ton'ic) 

Thessaly (thes'sa ly) 

Thracians (thra'shtins) 

Tigris (tl'grls) 

Toul (tool) 

Transylvania (trSn syl ^"^'■ 

ni a) 
Trentino (tren fi'no) 
Trieste (tri est') or (tri 6s'ta) 
Tripoli (trip' o II) 
Tuscany (ttis'ca ny) 



Tyrol (ty'rol) 

Tzernagorah (tzer na' go' ra; 
Vandals (van' dls) 
Venetia (ven e' sha) 
Venizelos (ven I zel'os) 
Vercingetorix (ver sin jet'6- 

riks) 
Verdun (vor dtin') 
Volgars (vol'garz) 
Vosges (vozh) 
Walloon (wal loon') 
Westphalia (west fa'li a) 
Wied (weed) 
Wilhelmine (wll'hel min) 
Yorkshire (york'shir) 



INDEX 



Adriatic Sea, question of the 
control of, 196. 

Agadir incident, 189. 

Albania, formation of the 
kingdom of, 197. 

Albanians, language of, 64-7; 
habits of, 77. 

Alexander the Great, 44. 

Algeciras incident, 185-6. 

Alliance, the Holy, 145, 163. 

Alliance, the Triple, 173, 197. 

Alliance, the Dual, 174, 197. 

AUiance, the Balkan, 194, 
199. 

Alsace, 159, 181, 211. 

Ambassador, 151. 

Angles, the, invade Britain, 
41. 

Arbitration of national dis- 
putes, 267. 

Arminius, 35. 

Armor, value of, 44. 

Austria-Hungary, origin of, 
69-70; helps to divide 
Poland, 102; at war with 
France, 108 ff; at war with 
Sardinia and France, 137 ff. ; 
at war with Prussia and 
Italy, 148; refuses to 
arbitrate Serbian trouble, 
215. 

Austrians in Italy, 118. 

Balance of Power, 164, 171, 

188. 



Balkan problem, 73-7, 132, 

165, 167, 191, 195, 199, 235. 
Barons, 52-59. 

BastiUe, fall of the, 107. 
Belgium, joined to Holland 

to form the Netherlands, 

130; independent, 133; 

guaranteed its freedom by 

three powers, 217. 
Bernadotte, 121, 123. 
Bismarck-Schonhausen , 1 45- 

176. 
Blenheim, battle of (poem 

16ff.),93. 
Bohemia, part of the Holy 

Roman Empire, 91; part 

of the Hapsburg domains, 

69, 98. 
Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon, 

135. 
Bonaparte, Napoleon, 112- 

126. 
Bosnian problem, 172, 186. 
Bourbon family, 131, 133. 
Brandenburg, 91; rise of, 95. 
Britons, 41, 73. 
Bulgaria, freed by Russia, 

167; left partially under 

the control of Turkey, 171; 

independent, 193; at war 

with five nations, 200; 

plunges into world war, 

239. 
Bulgars, origin of, 75; in 

Macedonia, 85. 



273 



274 



Index 



Bulow, Prince von, 233. 
Burgundians, 36, 40. 
Byzantium becomes Con- 
stantinople, 78. 

Caesar, Julius, 33, 48. 

Cape to Cairo Railroad, 179. 

Catharine II of Russia, 102. 

Cavour, Count, prime minis- 
ter of Sardinia, 137-139. 

Celtic languages, disappear- 
ance of, 63, 67. 

Celts, 32, 63. 

Charlemagne, 89-91, 138. 

Charles V, 117. 

Charles XII of Sweden, 255, 
262. 

Chauvinists, 207. 

Cincinnatus, 49. 

Constantinople, 78, 84. 

Cracow, Repubhc of, 132-3. 

Czechs, 246. 

Danes, 41, in Schleswig, 244. 
Dark Ages, 45. 
Delcassc, 181, 186. 
Denmark, loses Norway, 131; 

defeated by Prussia and 

Austria, 148. 
Dialects, 70. 
Dictator, Roman, 49. 
Divine right of kings, 50, 120, 

163. 
Dukes vs. Kings, 57-8, 88. 
Duma, the Russian, 207. 

Edward VII, 182. 

Elba, Napoleon's return 

from, 125. 
Elector, the Great, 95. 



Electors of the Holy Roman 

Empire, 91. 
England, power of the king 

of, 89; in Egypt, 178; 

troubles of, in 1914, 212-3. 
Entente Cordiale, 183. 
Entente, the Triple, 188. 
Esthonians, 247. 
Etruscans, 24. 

Fashoda incident, 180-182. 

Ferdinand of Bulgaria, 237; 
enters war on side of Ger- 
many and Austria, 239; 
attacks Serbia, 240; ambi- 
tions of, 262. 

Feudal system, 54-59. 

Finland annexed to Russia, 
131. 

Finns, 62; conquered by the 
Swedes, 261. 

Flemish, 130, 244. 

France, power of king of, 
88, 105; execution of king 
of. 111; in Africa, 179; wars 
of, 256. 

Franks, 36, 40, 113, 255. 

Franz Ferdinand, 213. 

Frederick the Great, 97-104. 

French Revolution, 107-111. 

Gaehc language, 63. 

Gaels, 71, 73. 

Garibaldi, 136, 138, 141. 

Gauls, 40, 41. 

German Confederation, 131, 

146, 149. 
German tribes, 30. 
Germanic languages, 63-4. 
Germany, the Holy Roman 

Empire of, 89. 



Index 



275 



Germany, the modern Em- 
pire of, 159; encourages 
France to declare war on 
England, 180; makes 
friends with Turkey, 185; 
poUcy toward Balkan 
nations, 191; warns Russia, 
215; attacks France 
through Belgium, 217-9. 

Goths, 36, 113, 255. 

Government, by the people, 
14-6; based on the consent 
of the governed, 38; Umited 
to the ruling class, 43. 

Governments, newness of 
European, 22. 

Great Britain offers to judge 
Serbian trouble, 215; de- 
clares war on Germany, 
226. 

Greece, treaty of, with Ser- 
bia, 240; Greek Empire, 
origin of, 78; fall of, 80. 

Greeks, 24, 64. 



Italy, a battle ground of 
nations, 113-8; becomes a 
nation, 141; makes war on 
Turkey, 223; declines to 
support Austria and Ger- 
many, 224; declares war on 
Austria, 233. 

Kavala, 194, 200, 236. 
Kent, William, on Mexican 

intervention, 265. 
Kings, origin of, 47-51. 
Koumanova, battle of, 200. 

Labor troubles, in England, 

213; in Russia, 208. 
Language, relationship shown 

by, 61-2. 
Latin tongues, 64. 
Lithuania, 104, 131. 
Lombards, 36, 41, 74, 113, 

115, 255. 
Lorraine, 159, 181, 211. 
Louis XIV of France, 93, 261. 



Hague, court of the, 215. 
Hannibal's war against 

Rome, 255, 
Hapsburgs, the, 69, 83, 92, 

113, 130. 
Hohenzollern family, 95, 153. 
Holstein, 147, 160. 
Homage, 53ff . 
Hungarians, 62. 
Huns, 33, 35, 48, 113. 

Indemnity, 149, 159, 211. 
Indo-Em-opean family of 

languages, 62, 68. 
Istria, 142, 149, 232, 245. 



Macedonia, 44, 85. 
Magyars, 65. 
Marathon, battle of, 44. 
Marchand, Major, 180-2. 
Maria Theresa, Empress of 

Austria, 100; helps to 

divide Poland, 102. 
Marlborough, Duke of, 18, 

93. 
Mazzini, 136, 138. 
Metternich, 134, 144, 157. 
Middle Ages, 45. 
Military service, owed to 

rulers, 59; in Prussia, 147, 

in France, 162, 205. 



276 



Index 



Mirabeau, 106. 
Moltke, 148, 152 ff. 
Montenegi'o, origin of, 81; 

declares war on Austria, 

222. 
Moors, 33, 84. 
Murat, 121. 

Napoleon III, 137, 148, 150-7. 
Netherlands, foundation of 

kingdom of, 130. 
Newspapers, control of, 108, 

209, 227, 228. 
Normans, 42, 52. 
Norway, joined to Sweden, 

131. 
Novibazar, the Sanjak of, 

195. 

Ostrogoths, 52, 113, 114. 

Paris, seige of, 157. 

Peasants, attached to the 
land, 55; support fighting 
classes, 87-8. 

Peter the Great, 89, 165. 

Poland, kingdom of, 97; 
partition of, 101-4; given 
largely to Russia, 131; 
revolutions in, 132. 

Preparation for war, 175, 
203, 208. 

Prussia, origin of kingdom of, 
97; crushed by Napoleon, 
120-1; dominated by Bis- 
marck, 146-176. 

Reichstag, 159, 160, 205, 

209. 
Reign of Terror, 109. 



Repubhc, first French, 108 ff. ; 
second French, 135; third 
French, 162. 

Robber chiefs, 45. 

Roman Empire, beginnings 
of, 25. 

Romansh people, 245. 

Rome, wars of, with Carth- 
age, 254. 

Roon, 152, 155. 

Rothschild, the banking 
house of, 210. 

Roumani, 25, 73, 76. 

Roumania, 25, 200; hopes of, 
241; population of, 248. 

Russia, rise of, 89; attacks 
Turkey, 136; poHcy of, 
165 ff.; relations with Bul- 
garia, 167, 194, 201; de- 
fends Serbia, 215. 

Ruthenians, 246. 

Saxons, 41. 

Saxony, annexed in part to 
Prussia, 130; aUied to 
Austria, 148. 

Salonika, Spanish Jews in, 
84, 194. 

Sardinia, kingdom of, 113, 
136. 

Schleswig, 147, 160. 

Scutari, 194, 197. 

Serbia, trade with Austria, 
194; relations with Bul- 
garia, 191, 201; trouble 
with Austria, 214-6; at- 
tacked on three sides, 
240. 

Serbs, origin of, 75; lands of. 
115; language of, 165. 



Index 



277 



Sicilies, Kingdom of the Two, 
113, 120, 139. 

Silesia, seizure of, 100. 

Slavic tribes, 31. 

Slovaks, 246. 

Slovenes, 246. 

Sobieski, John, king of 
Poland, 81. 

Sociahsts, in Germany, 205; 
in Italy, 222. 

Spain, origin of, 89; drives 
out "unbelievers," 84; be- 
comes a republic, 134. 

Suevi, 33. 

Sweden, decline of, 256. 

Talleyrand, 129, 157. 
Trentino, 142, 149, 232, 245. 
Tunis, seized by France, 173, 

222. 
Turkey, defended by France 

and England, 136; attacks 

Russia, 231. 



Turks, 62; capture Constanti- 
nople, 80; driven back from 
Vienna, 81; the young 
Turks, 186. 

Ulster trouble, the, 212. 

Vandals, 36, 41, 114. 
Venice, Republic of, 119. 
Vercingetorix, 48. 
Victor Emmanuel, 141. 
Vienna, Congress of, 127-132. 

Walloons, 130, 244. 

War, four causes of, 21, 
261-4; cost of, 251; diseases 
caused by, 254; increasing 
horror of, 258; a remedy 
for, 265. 

Warsaw, Grand-Duchy of, 
121. 

Waterloo, battle of, 125. 

Wilhani of Normandy, 58, 
262. 



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